Detection of Salmonella enterica Serovar Montevideo and Newport in Free‐ranging Sea Turtles and Beach Sand in the Caribbean and Persistence in Sand and Seawater Microcosms

Salmonellae are Gram‐negative zoonotic bacteria that are frequently part of the normal reptilian gastrointestinal flora. The main objective of this project was to estimate the prevalence of non‐typhoidal Salmonella enterica in the nesting and foraging populations of sea turtles on St. Kitts and in sand from known nesting beaches. Results suggest a higher prevalence of Salmonella in nesting leatherback sea turtles compared with foraging green and hawksbill sea turtles. Salmonella was cultured from 2/9 and identified by molecular diagnostic methods in 3/9 leatherback sea turtle samples. Salmonella DNA was detected in one hawksbill turtle, but viable isolates were not recovered from any hawksbill sea turtles. No Salmonella was detected in green sea turtles. In samples collected from nesting beaches, Salmonella was only recovered from a single dry sand sample. All recovered isolates were positive for the wzx gene, consistent with the O:7 serogroup. Further serotyping characterized serovars Montevideo and Newport present in cloacal and sand samples. Repetitive‐element palindromic PCR (rep‐PCR) fingerprint analysis and pulsed‐field gel electrophoresis of the 2014 isolates from turtles and sand as well as archived Salmonella isolates recovered from leatherback sea turtles in 2012 and 2013, identified two distinct genotypes and four different pulsotypes, respectively. The genotyping and serotyping were directly correlated. To determine the persistence of representative strains of each serotype/genotype in these environments, laboratory‐controlled microcosm studies were performed in water and sand (dry and wet) incubated at 25 or 35°C. Isolates persisted for at least 32 days in most microcosms, although there were significant decreases in culturable bacteria in several microcosms, with the greatest reduction in dry sand incubated at 35°C. This information provides a better understanding of the epizootiology of Salmonella in free‐ranging marine reptiles and the potential public health risks associated with human interactions with these animals in the Caribbean.     

Comparative study of hematologic and plasma biochemical variables in Eastern Atlantic juvenile and adult nesting loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta)

Background: Plasma biochemical and hematologic variables are important in the management of endangered sea turtles, such as loggerheads. However, studies on blood biochemistry and hematology of loggerheads are limited, and different concentrations according to variable criteria have been reported. Objective: The purpose of this study was to establish and compare baseline plasma chemistry and hematology values in Eastern Atlantic juvenile and adult nesting loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta). Methods: Blood samples were collected from 69 healthy juvenile loggerhead sea turtles after their rehabilitation in captivity, and from 34 adult nesting loggerheads after oviposition. Fresh blood was used for leukocyte differential count and PCV determination. Heparinized blood was used for RBC and WBC counts. Plasma biochemical concentrations were measured using an automated biochemical analyzer. For the comparative study, nonparametric statistical analysis was done using the Mann–Whitney U‐test. Results: Minimum, maximum, and median concentrations were obtained for 14 hematologic and 15 plasma chemistry variables. Statistically significant differences between juvenile and adult turtles were found for PCV; RBC, WBC, and leukocyte differential counts; total protein, albumin, globulins, calcium, triglycerides, glucose, total cholesterol and urea concentrations; and lactate dehydrogenase activity. Conclusions: Age, size, and reproductive status cause important variations in the hematologic and plasma biochemical results of loggerheads. The reference values obtained in this study may be used as a standard profile, useful for veterinary surgeons involved in sea turtle conservation.     

Field anaesthesia of leatherback sea turtles (Dermochelys coriacea)

Ten nesting leatherback sea turtles on Trinidad were anaesthetised for electroretinogram (ERG) measurements, using ketamine and medetomidine, reversed with atipamezole. They weighed 242 to 324 kg and were given initial doses of 3 to 8 mg/kg ketamine and 30 to 80 microg/kg medetomidine administered into an external jugular vein; six of the turtles received supplementary doses of 2.6 to 3.9 mg/kg ketamine combined with 0 to 39 microg/kg medetomidine. The lower doses were used initially to ensure against overdosage and reduce the chances of residual effects after the turtles returned to the water, but successful ergs called for step-wise dose increases to the required level of anaesthesia. Respiratory rate, heart rate, electrocardiogram, cloacal temperature, and venous blood gases were monitored, and blood was collected for plasma biochemistry. At the end of the erg procedure, atipamezole was administered at 150 to 420 microg/kg (five times the dose of medetomidine), half intramuscularly and half intravascularly. The turtles were monitored and prevented from re-entering the water until their behaviour was normal. No apparent mortalities or serious anaesthetic complications occurred. The observed within-season return nesting rate of the anaesthetised turtles was comparable with that of unanaesthetised turtles.     

Successive changes of hematologic characteristics and plasma chemistry values of juvenile loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta).

Hematologic characteristics and plasma chemistry values of juvenile loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta) from the ages of 1 mo to 3 yr were obtained to establish baseline values. Five clinically normal loggerhead turtles were selected from the same clutch and raised in an indoor artificial nesting beach. Blood samples were successively collected and examined for various blood characteristics for a maximum total of 15 times. Hematologic characteristics, including packed cell volume, white blood cell counts, and white blood cell differentials; and plasma chemistry values, including total bilirubin, total protein, albumin, glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase, glutamic pyruvic transaminase, gamma-glutamic transpeptidase, creatinine, blood urea nitrogen, uric acid, alkaline phosphatase, amylase, triglyceride, total cholesterol, ionized sodium, ionized potassium and ionized chlorine, were measured. These results were used to establish a hematology and blood chemistry baseline for captive juvenile loggerhead turtles and will aid in their medical management.     

Determination of plasma albumin concentration in healthy and diseased turtles: a comparison of protein electrophoresis and the bromcresol green dye‐binding method

Background: In reptile medicine, plasma chemistry analysis is widely used for the evaluation of an individual's health status. The standard method for the determination of plasma albumin concentration is protein electrophoresis combined with the determination of total protein concentration, but the bromcresol green (BCG) dye‐binding method is also used. The reliability of the BCG method for the measurement of albumin concentration in reptiles is unknown. Objective: The aim of this study was to compare the plasma albumin values of turtles obtained by protein electrophoresis and the BCG method. Methods: Between March 2008 and September 2008, heparinized plasma samples from 16 clinically healthy and 10 diseased turtles of different species were collected. Plasma albumin concentrations were measured by protein electrophoresis and by the BCG method. The results of the 2 methods were compared using Passing–Bablok regression and Bland–Altman plots. Results: Albumin concentration measured by BCG was weakly correlated with the corresponding protein electrophoretic values in all turtles (r_s=.610, P<.001) and in healthy turtles evaluated separately (r_s=.700, P=.003), whereas in diseased turtles no such correlation was found (r_s=.374, P=.287). The albumin concentration measured with the 2 different methods differed significantly in all turtles (P=.009; Wilcoxon's test) and in healthy turtles (P=.005) but not in diseased animals (P=.241). In the Bland–Altman plot a systematic error was found between the 2 methods in diseased turtles. Conclusion: Measurement of albumin by the BCG dye‐binding method may lead to inaccurate results for plasma albumin concentration, especially in ill turtles. Therefore, for health assessment in turtles, albumin should be measured by protein electrophoresis.     

Evaluation of injury severity and hematologic and plasma biochemistry values for recently captured North American river otters (Lontra canadensis).

As part of a reintroduction program, blood samples from free-ranging, recently captured Nearctic river otters (Lontra canadensis) in eastern New York state were collected and analyzed to determine baseline hematology and plasma biochemistry values for the source population, and to determine whether these values were significant predictors of trap-injury status. Based on physical exam, each otter was classified as uninjured, moderately injured, or severely injured. Clinical pathology parameters were compared across sex, age class, and injury classification. The increase in likelihood of a change in each parameter in injured versus uninjured otters was determined using logistic regression. Baseline hematology and plasma biochemistry values did not differ significantly from published values for captive otters in zoos or other reintroduction programs. Plasma aspartate aminotransferase levels increased as time from capture to venipuncture decreased. Some otters in this study showed clinical signs consistent with exertional myopathy, possibly altering our calculation of baseline values. Our results suggest that the hematology and plasma biochemistry values obtained in this recently captured population of otters are generally not good predictors of capture-related injury. This could be due to disease processes that are not readily visible upon physical examination or because changes in these values may be associated with factors independent of capture-related injury.     

Finding of a two-headed green turtle embryo during nest monitoring in Baa Atoll,Maldives

Green sea turtles are one of the two species of marine turtles known to nest in the Maldives. The prevalent time of nesting seems to be inconsistent throughout the island nation. In this study, sea turtle nesting activity was monitored on the island of Coco Palm Dhuni Kolhu in Baa Atoll over a period of 12 months. A total of 13 nests were confirmed with a median hatching success rate of 89.58% as ascertained by nest excavation. In one of the nests, a severely deformed hatchling with polycephaly, an opening in the neck area and a lordotic spine was found, and we investigated in detail with radiographic images and a necropsy. Our findings support the importance of consistent nesting activity and nest monitoring efforts in the country as a basis for conservation efforts.     

Hematology and serum biochemistry comparison in wild and captive Central American river turtles (Dermatemys mawii) in Tabasco, Mexico

Hematological and serum biochemistry analyses were determined on 51 Central American river turtles (Dermatemys mawii) during the dry and rainy seasons of 2006. Turtles came from two sites: Pantanos de Centla Biosphere Reserve and a turtle breeding farm, both located in Tabasco State, Mexico. Physical examination and body measures of animals were performed. Incidence and prevalence of hemoparasites were explored.Captive organisms were in poor physical condition while wild turtles were apparently healthy. There were differences in several hematological parameters related with the condition and the season. During the dry season captive turtles exhibited higher levels of uric acid and urea, as well as lower levels of glucose. Haemogregarina sp. was detected in 100% of the wild individuals, but not in captive individuals. Its incidence was greater during the rainy season. This is the first health assessment and hematology study of this critically endangered species.     

Plasma concentrations of praziquantel after oral administration of single and multiple doses in loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta)

OBJECTIVE: To determine the pharmacokinetics of praziquantel following single and multiple oral dosing in loggerhead sea turtles. ANIMALS: 12 healthy juvenile loggerhead sea turtles. PROCEDURE: Praziquantel was administered orally as a single dose (25 and 50 mg/kg) to 2 groups of turtles; a multiple-dose study was then performed in which 6 turtles received 3 doses of praziquantel (25 mg/kg, PO) at 3-hour intervals. Blood samples were collected from all turtles before and at intervals after drug administration for assessment of plasma praziquantel concentrations. Pharmacokinetic analyses included maximum observed plasma concentration (Cmax), time to maximum concentration (Tmax), area under the plasma praziquantel concentration-time curve, and mean residence time (MRTt). RESULTS: Large interanimal variability in plasma praziquantel concentrations was observed for all dosages. One turtle that received 50 mg of praziquantel/kg developed skin lesions within 48 hours of administration. After administration of 25 or 50 mg of praziquantel/kg, mean plasma concentrations were below the limit of quantification after 24 hours. In the multiple-dose group of turtles, mean plasma concentration was 90 ng/mL at the last sampling time-point (48 hours after the first of 3 doses). In the single-dose study, mean Cmax and Tmax with dose were not significantly different between doses. After administration of multiple doses of praziquantel, only MRTt was significantly increased, compared with values after administration of a single 25-mg dose. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Oral administration of 25 mg of praziquantel/kg 3 times at 3-hour intervals may be appropriate for treatment of loggerhead sea turtles with spirorchidiasis.     

Relationship between barnacle epibiotic load and hematologic parameters in loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta), a comparison between migratory and residential animals in Pamlico Sound, North Carolina.

Health status of a total of 57 loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta; 42 migratory and 15 residential turtles) was analyzed using body condition and hematologic parameters. A subset of 18 juvenile migratory loggerhead sea turtles in the fall of 1997 and 15 residential turtles in the summer of 2000 were analyzed for barnacle epibiota. The migratory group had significantly higher red blood cell counts and percent heterophils and significantly lower percent lymphocyte and absolute eosinophil counts, as well as significantly lower plasma concentrations of calcium, sodium, chloride, potassium, glucose, alkaline phosphatase, and anion gap. Many of these variations may be because of physiology of migration. A positive association between turtle weight and hematocrit was detected and may be because of larger turtles diving for longer periods of time. There were no significant differences of epibiota load, health of the turtles, or condition index between turtles captured during the two events.     

Hematology and serum chemistry values of the European brown hare

Background: Hematology and serum biochemistry values can be useful for evaluating the health of populations of captive and free-living European brown hares ( Lepus europaeus ). However, current information is fragmented and incomplete.
Objective: The objective of this study was to determine normal hematology and serum chemistry values for a population of captive European brown hares and to investigate differences related to sex and age.
Methods: Routine hematology and serum chemistry values were determined for 48 captive European brown hares in Catalonia (northeastern Spain): 21 young (6 males and 15 females) and 27 adult (14 males and 13 females) hares. Blood was obtained by auricular venipuncture while animals were physically restrained. Results were expressed as the mean ± SD, and reference intervals were calculated as the mean ± 2SD.
Results: RBC count, PCV, concentrations of hemoglobin, total protein, albumin, gamma globulin, urea nitrogen, and creatinine, and alanine aminotransferase activity were significantly higher in adults than in young hares, and alkaline phosphatase activity and total bilirubin concentration were lower. Sex differences were not observed.
Conclusions: Hematology and serum chemistry results obtained in this study are considered representative for healthy captive European brown hares. A single reference interval can be used for values from male and female hares, however, age-specific intervals are needed for some analytes.     

Perceptions of fishers to sea turtle bycatch,illegal capture and consumption in the San Ignacio‐Navachiste‐Macapule lagoon complex,Gulf of California,Mexico

In this study, 10% of all registered fishermen in the coastal towns of Navachiste in Sinaloa, in northwestern Mexico, answered a survey designed to collect data on their perceptions of the following topics: the impact of turtle meat consumption; human health; bycatch; illegal turtle fishing; the illegal sea turtle market; the local economy; pollution; environmental education; the success of protective legislation; and sea turtle‐based ecotourism. Perceptions were analyzed using the fuzzy logic method through classification into 5 fuzzy membership sets: VL, very low; L, low; M, moderate; H, high; VH, very high. The 9 topics generated decision areas upon applying fuzzy inference that revealed the membership level of the answers in each fuzzy set. The economic potential of sea turtle‐based ecotourism and the economic profitability of the illegal turtle meat market were perceived as VL. Conservation legislation was perceived as H, although inefficiently applied due to corruption. Ecotourism and impacts on sea turtles were perceived as VL, because they were deemed unprofitable activities at the individual and community levels. Environmental education was perceived as L, because it centers on nesting, hatching and releasing turtles and is directed at elementary and middle‐school students. While fishers perceive a serious negative impact of fishing activities on sea turtles in the San Ignacio‐Navachiste‐Macapule area, they do not see themselves individually as part of the problem. Achieving sea turtle conservation in this region requires: suitable ecotourism infrastructure, government investments in promotion, and studies to estimate the minimum number of tourists needed to assure profitability.     

Mitogen-induced lymphocyte proliferation in loggerhead sea turtles: comparison of methods and effects of gender, plasma testosterone concentration, and body condition on immunity

A fully functioning immune system is vital to the survival of threatened and endangered sea turtles. Immunological protection against diseases in any organism can be reduced by a number of natural and anthropogenic factors, such as seasonal changes, malnutrition, disease states, and contaminant exposure. These factors are even more critical when they occur in endangered species or populations. To identify alterations in the immunological health of loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta), the mitogen-induced lymphocyte proliferation (LP) assay was developed using peripheral blood leukocytes (PBLs). Collection and culture conditions were optimized for this assay using non-lethal blood samples collected from free-ranging turtles along the southeastern US coast. During the collection, two anticoagulants (sodium heparin and lithium heparin) were compared to determine effects of different ions on assay results. Optimal culture conditions were established for loggerhead PBLs while two different methods of measuring LP were compared: (1) the traditional radioactive (3)H-thymidine assay and (2) a non-radioactive, colorimetric method utilizing 3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium (MTT). The results indicate that the (3)H-thymidine and the non-radioactive MTT methods did not correlate with each other and that the use of heparin type did not influence the results of the LP assay. Lastly, using these optimized methods, we investigated the effect of gender, plasma testosterone concentration, and body condition on LP in loggerhead turtles and found that none of the parameters largely influenced LP.     

全球海龟资源和保护概况

世界现存海龟仅2科6属7种,都属国际濒危物种。生物界很难找到像海龟—类受到众多世人强烈关注的动物了,国际上亦十分重视海龟的保护工作,不仅专门成立了海龟专家小组(MTSG),制定了许多国际公约,定期出版《海龟通讯》(MTN)等期刊,还成立了一些影响力广泛的国际组织,并经常召开一些与海龟保护相关的国际会议,掀起了全球范围的拯救海龟大行动。本研究概述了海龟资源现状、致危因素、国际保护措施及成果。近年来全球海龟资源总量呈直线下降趋势,海龟面临的主要生存威胁有:渔业副获、直接捕食、沿海经济发展、环境污染与疾病、全球变暖等。最后,简要介绍了海龟重要的经济、科研、观赏、文化和生态价值,并呼吁全人类共同保护海龟。     

Pharmacokinetics of fluconazole in loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) after single intravenous and subcutaneous injections, and multiple subcutaneous injections.

Superficial and systemic mycotic infections are common among clinically ill sea turtles, which places growing importance on the establishment of pharmacokinetic-based dosage regimens for antifungal drugs. The pharmacokinetic properties of the antifungal drug fluconazole, after intravenous (i.v.) and subcutaneous (s.c.) injections, were studied in juvenile loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) housed at 23.0-26.5 degrees C. Fluconazole pharmacokinetic properties were further assessed in a multiple-dose s.c. regimen derived from the pharmacokinetic parameters determined in the single-dose study. Pharmacokinetic parameters were calculated, using a two-compartment model, from plasma concentration-time data obtained after single i.v. and s.c. administrations of fluconazole at a dosage of 2.5 mg/ kg body weight in six juvenile sea turtles. Blood samples were collected at intervals through 120 hr after each dose, and the concentration of fluconazole in plasma was measured by reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography. The i.v. and s.c. elimination half-lives were 139.5 +/- 36.0 and 132.6 +/- 48.7 hr (mean +/- SD), respectively. Systemic clearance of fluconazole was 8.2 +/- 4.3 ml/kg x hr, and the apparent volume of distribution at steady state was 1.38 +/- 0.29 L/kg. A multiple-dose regimen was derived, which consisted of a loading dose of 21 mg/kg body weight and subsequent doses of 10 mg/kg administered through s.c. injection every 120 hr (5 days). This regimen was administered to four juvenile sea turtles for 10 days, and blood samples were taken to determine peak and trough plasma concentrations of fluconazole. The mean concentrations for the two peak concentrations were 16.9 +/- 1.1 and 19.1 +/- 2.8 microg/ml 4 hr after dosing, and the mean concentrations for the three trough concentrations were 7.2 +/- 2.2, 10.4 +/- 2.7, and 10.7 +/- 2.9 microg/ml 120 hr after dosing. The terminal half-life after the last dose was calculated at 143 hr. Throughout the multiple dosing, fluconazole concentrations remained above approximately 8 microg/ml, a concentration targeted when treating mycotic infections in humans. The results of this study suggest that fluconazole can be effectively administered to sea turtles at a dosage of 10 mg/kg every 5 days after a loading dose of 21 mg/kg.     

Steady-state plasma concentrations of itraconazole after oral administration in Kemp's ridley sea turtles, Lepidochelys kempi.

Pharmacokinetic studies of antifungal agents in reptiles are uncommon. Itraconazole, which has been used prophylactically in juvenile sea turtles suffering from hypothermia (cold stunning) on a regular basis, was evaluated for steady-state plasma concentrations. Five Kemp's ridley sea turtles (Lepidochelys kempi) receiving itraconazole at several dosages in a rehabilitation program had blood collected within 24 hr to estimate dosing frequency. Subsequently, serial blood samples of Kemp's ridley sea turtles that were given itraconazole at several dosages for 30 days to treat cold stunning were collected at various intervals to evaluate itraconazole plasma concentrations. Tissue samples were collected from one Kemp's ridley that died during rehabilitation. Plasma concentrations of itraconazole (and of hydroxyitraconazole [OH-ITRA], one of its major bioactive metabolites) were determined using a modified, validated reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography technique. Itraconazole concentrations in tissues were determined by bioassay to be far greater than the plasma concentrations measured in any of the turtles. At a 15-mg/kg dosage, the half-life (t1/2) was 75 hr for itraconazole and 55 hr for OH-ITRA. All dosages produced adequate concentrations in some turtles, but consistent therapeutic concentrations were produced only at 15 mg/kg q72hr and 5 mg/kg s.i.d., with the latter producing the highest plasma concentrations.     

The use of echocardiography as a health assessment tool in green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas)

There are limited techniques available to assess the health of sea turtles as physical examination has little correlation to clinical findings, and blood reference intervals are broad and provide limited prognostic significance. Advances in the portability of ultrasound machines allow echocardiography to be increasingly used in the health assessments of wild animals. This study performed blood analysis and echocardiograms on 11 green sea turtles upon admission to a rehabilitation clinic and six animals before release. Significant differences were seen between groups, with admission animals having significantly smaller diameters of the cavum arteriosum at systole and diastole, smaller E‐waves and an increased fractional shortening. Pre‐release animals displayed significant increases in the maximum blood velocities of both the pulmonary artery and the left aorta. Significant negative correlations were seen between fractional shortening and uric acid and between the velocity time integral of the pulmonary artery and urea. The pulmonary artery velocity time integral was also significantly correlated to the E wave. Furthermore, there was asynchrony between the cavum arteriosum and the cavum pulmonale and the detection of a parasitic granuloma in the ventricular outflow tract of one animal. Overall, the results suggest that cardiac function in stranded green sea turtles is significantly impaired and that echocardiography has applications in the health assessments of green sea turtles.     

Pathology of Fibropapillomatosis in Olive Ridley Turtles Lepidochelys olivacea Nesting in Costa Rica

Abstract

Fibropapillomatosis (FP) is a neoplastic disease that primarily affects green turtles Chelonia mydas in epidemic proportions worldwide. Although several infectious agents (herpesvirus, retrovirus, and papillomavirus) have been associated with the condition, the etiologic agent has not been isolated or characterized. Recently, FP has been reported in other sea turtle species including confirmed cases in loggerhead turtles Caretta caretta in Florida and field observations in olive ridley turtles Lepidochelys olivacea in the Pacific coasts of Mexico and Costa Rica. Skin and tumor specimens were collected from 72 olive ridley turtles nesting in Ostional Wildlife Refuge, Costa Rica, between July and September 1997. In all, 50 tumor biopsies were examined from 25 of the affected turtles. In addition, six biopsies were examined from five turtles that did not have visible masses and served as controls. Grossly, masses were 25 mm or less in diameter, white to gray, smooth to verruciform, raised tumors of the integument of the neck and flippers. Histologically, 42 of 50 were diagnosed as fibropapillomas and eight were classified as chronic active dermatitis and not tumors. Twenty of 42 fibropapillomas were in stages of regression and 9 of the remaining 22 tumors had histological changes that suggested early degeneration within the tumor. During field surveys based on gross lesions, prevalences of 1–10% have been reported in this nesting population. This is considered the first histopathologic confirmation of FP in olive ridley turtles.     

Pharmacokinetics of florfenicol in loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) after single intravenous and intramuscular injections.

The pharmocodynamics of single injections of florfenicol in yearling loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) were determined. Eight juvenile loggerhead sea turtles weighing 1.25 (+/- 0.18) kg were divided into two groups. Four animals received 30 mg/kg of florfenicol i.v., and four received the same dose i.m. Plasma florfenicol concentrations were analyzed by reverse-phase high performance liquid chromatography. After the i.v. dose, there was a biphasic decline in plasma florfenicol concentration. The initial steep phase from 3 min to 1 hr had a half-life of 3 min, and there was a longer slow phase of elimination, with a half-life that ranged from 2 to 7.8 hr among turtles. The volume of distribution varied greatly and ranged from 10.46 to -60 L/kg. Clearance after the i.v. dose was 3.6-6.3 L/kg/hr. After the i.m. injection, there was a peak within 30 min of 1.4-5.6 microg/ml, and florfenicol was thereafter eliminated with a half-life of 3.2-4.3 hr. With either route, florfenicol plasma concentrations were below the minimum inhibitory concentrations for sensitive bacteria within 1 hr. Florfenicol does not appear to be a practical antibiotic in sea turtles when administered at these doses.     

Movements and diving behavior of internesting green turtles along Pacific Costa Rica

Using satellite transmitters, we determined the internesting movements, spatial ecology and diving behavior of East Pacific green turtles (Chelonia mydas) nesting on Nombre de Jesús and Zapotillal beaches along the Pacific coast of northwestern Costa Rica. Kernel density analysis indicated that turtles spent most of their time in a particularly small area in the vicinity of the nesting beaches (50% utilization distribution was an area of 3 km²). Minimum daily distance traveled during a 12 day internesting period was 4.6 ± 3.5 km. Dives were short and primarily occupied the upper 10 m of the water column. Turtles spent most of their time resting at the surface and conducting U‐dives (ranging from 60 to 81% of the total tracking time involved in those activities). Turtles showed a strong diel pattern, U‐dives mainly took place during the day and turtles spent a large amount of time resting at the surface at night. The lack of long‐distance movements demonstrated that this area was heavily utilized by turtles during the nesting season and, therefore, was a crucial location for conservation of this highly endangered green turtle population. The unique behavior of these turtles in resting at the surface at night might make them particularly vulnerable to fishing activities near the nesting beaches.