The introduction of expert systems in animal husbandry

Summary

The intensive nature of modern animal husbandry has changed the environmental conditions, so that protection against diseases, especially those caused by secondary pathogenic organisms, becomes an increasing concern. Production inefficiencies become more and more important. Because of their complex nature, many associated problems cannot be solved by farmers alone. With the introduction of information technology in the form of expert systems, new possibilities emerge for maximal productivity and animal health.

Expert systems are a new type of computer programmes which are able to handle problems in limited domains at an expert level, using expert knowledge and reasoning processes, within strictly defined problem limits. Expert systems as they presently exist have the following components: a knowledge base (rule‐ and data‐base), inference engine (deductive mechanism), user‐interface (explanatory facilities, etc.).

The application of knowledge engineering in animal husbandry may result in improvements in the general health and productivity of the herd and the financial returns of the farm, derived from the improved managerial control. At the same time the use of knowledge engineering may lead to greater understanding of the various epidemiological factors that influence farm results, either positively or negatively.     

Aspects of animal welfare in livestock production

The modern consumer is increasingly concerned about the welfare of farm animals which are kept in intensive systems on specialised farms where the health and well-being is almost completely dependent on the will, ability and care of the farmer. Further demands related to animal production are consumer health (quality and safety of food products), the protection of the environment and cheap food. The currently used husbandry systems are man made and emphasise automation which requires permanent critical observation of the welfare of the animals. Ethological indicators are equally important as health and performance to evaluate keeping systems. Future animal farming will be influenced by new technologies such as electronic animal identification and milking robots, and more important by biotechnology and genome analysis. Veterinary surgeons and farmers have to co-operate on the basis of scientifically sound animal welfare schemes which help to protect our farm animals in modern and intensive livestock production systems.     

New Biotechniques and their Consequences for Farm Animal Welfare

Contents This paper considers (potentially) harmful consequences of new biotechnologies for farm animal welfare. The most important new biotechnologies that are currently used in farm animals breeding and husbandry include: multiple ovulation and embryo transfer (MOET) and in vitro embryo production (IVP). Cloning by nuclear transfer (NT) and transgenesis are still in development and mainly applied for experimental purposes with the prospect of a more widespread practical implemention in the future. Evidence is presented showing that generally accepted technologies such as MOET and IVP, relative to in vivo procedures, can result in a host of deleterious side-effects commonly known as the large offspring syndrome (LOS). Likewise, NT and transgenesis, which also typically include several in vitro reproductive manipulations, have clearly been associated with the occurrence of LOS symptoms. It is argued that transgenesis may constitute one additional set of factors that may negatively affect farm animal welfare: the expression of the transgene and the concomitant synthesis and release of a protein. NT might lead to incompletely reprogramming of the transferred genome. It is suggested that the introduction of new biotechnologies into farm animal husbandry should be accompanied by scientifically valid and systematic studies into the effects on animal welfare, with the help of a comprehensive welfare protocol.     

Cognitive enrichment in zoo and farm animals--implications for animal behaviour and welfare

Animals in the wild are facing a wide variety of challenges and ever-changing environmental stimuli. For successful coping, animals use both innate behavioural programs and their cognitive skills. In contrast, zoo- and farm animals have to cope with restricted husbandry conditions, which offer only few opportunities to adequately satisfy their various needs. Consequences could be sensory and cognitive underchallenge that can cause boredom and frustration as well as behavioural disturbances. Initially intended for improvement of management and husbandry, different forms of operant behavioural training have been applied firstly in zoo- and later also in farm animals. It has been suggested that successful coping with appropriate cognitive challenges is a source of positive emotions and may lead to improved welfare. Under the term cognitive enrichment, new approaches have been developed to integrate cognitive challenges into the housing of zoo- and farm animals. The present article reviews actual research in the field. Previous results indicate that, beyond improvement of management and handling routines, such approaches can positively affect animal behaviour and welfare. The combination of explorative and appetitive behaviour with successful learning improves environmental predictability and controllability for the animals, activates reward-related brain systems and can directly affect emotional processes of appraisal. For practical implementation in farm animal husbandry, it sounds promising to link individual access to e.g. automated feeders or milking systems with previously conditioned stimuli and/or discriminatory learning tasks. First experimental approaches in pigs, dwarf goats and cattle are available and will be discussed in the present article.     

Ethological basis for the development of alternative husbandry systems]

Ethological studies in semi-natural enclosures consistently show that the species-specific behaviour of our farm animal species has hardly been changed by domestication. However, in intensive husbandry systems the evolutionary bases of behaviour are neglected. The functions of behaviour are no longer achieved by the animal's species-specific behaviour, but by technical solutions. In contrast, alternative husbandry systems provide the animal an environment that releases and structures its species-specific behaviour. A combined husbandry system for breeding sows and fattening pigs in an enriched pen is described. Although the structures of the pen and the space available differ much from a semi-natural environment, the pigs show their normal species-specific behaviour. This is because the behavioural mechanisms do not respond differently to natural and artificial stimuli in their environment.     

生态牧业及其效益评价

本文根据生态牧业具有较高的稳定性、持久性、平衡性、生产性和经济性特点,陈述了评价反映生态牧业体系的生态效益、经济效益和社会效益的关键性指标,介绍了生态牧业的效益评价方法及其不同种方法的可用性,并讨论了我国南方10年主要采用的两种基本生态牧业模式在实践中可能存在的问题。     

云南省临沧市畜牧业现状、存在问题及发展建议

高原特色生态畜牧业作为云南省临沧市农村经济发展及其收入的重要产业,是目前解决临沧市＂三农＂问题,实现生态保护与经济可持续发展双赢的有效途径。在实地调查、专家走访和资料查阅的基础上,阐述了当前临沧市畜牧业发展现状、存在问题及发展生态畜牧业的优势,并就如何加快临沧市高原特色生态畜牧业发展提出了相关建议。     

Basic ethological considerations concerning the evaluation of the welfare of farm animals

In the assessment of husbandry conditions with regard to farm animal welfare the probability or risk is evaluated to which extent the animals are feeling well or are prone to pain, suffering or physical harm under the specific husbandry conditions. It is emphasised that well-being is more than merely the absence of pain, suffering and physical harm. Well-being is defined as the experience of the extent of being able to successfully cope with the environment. Consequently, any prevention to actively and successfully interact with the environment may impair animal well-being. This situation often arises because of conflicts between husbandry conditions and innate species-specific behaviour programs, regardless of any domestication effects on the reactivity of the farm animals to their environment. Based on these presumptions, four broad categories of influence on the well-being of animals are identified and exemplary explained. On the side of the environment these are the extent of (1) physical opportunity to perform species-specific behaviour, (2) availability of adequate stimuli and substrates for this behaviour and (3) adequate learning opportunities, especially during rearing. On the animals' side it is the extent of (4) their genetically based bodily capacity to perform species-specific behaviour. Less behavioural restriction is associated with the likelihood that better well-being is safeguarded under the aspect of behaviour. For a full assessment with respect to animal welfare also health aspects and other variables as appropriate must be taken into account. The assessment is comparative by nature and does not in itself include any conclusion about the acceptability of certain conditions.     

Satisfaction of farm animal behavioral needs in behaviorally restricted systems: Reducing stressors and environmental enrichment

In modern intensive husbandry, systems often restrict farm animal behavior. Behavioral needs will be generated by external stimuli such as stressors deriving from environmental factors or the method of animal care, or some internal factor in farm animals. This means that behavioral restriction would induce maladaptation to stressors or chronic stress. Such a risk of behavioral restriction degrades an animal's physical and mental health and leads to economic loss at a farm. Methods to reduce the risk of behavioral restrictions are to ameliorate the source of a stressor through adequate animal management or to carry out environmental enrichment. This review is intended to describe the relation between animal management and behavioral needs from the perspective of animal motivation.     

Stress in farm animals: a need for reevaluation

In animal husbandry, stress has usually been conceived as a reflex reaction that occurs ineluctably when animals are exposed to adverse environmental conditions, and which is the cause of many unfavorable consequences, ranging from discomfort to death. The inadequacy of this view is apparent from the new concepts that have been developed from research aimed at understanding the relationships between hormonal and behavioral reactions to stressful situations. Psychological aspects of environmental stimuli are powerful activators of endocrine responses. The amount of psychological stress that an animal experiences determines how much the pituitary-adrenal axis responds. Indeed, removing the variable of emotional arousal reduces or eliminates responses to some other stressors such as heat and cold. This means that one of the most important characteristics of the stress response, its nonspecificity, lies in the afferent part of the response, not the efferent. Hormonal and behavioral responses are intimately related in stressful situations. In particular, the perception and ensuing behavior of the subject are critical to the nature and intensity of hormonal response. Evidence from experiments in farm animals is presented to support these concepts. Because adjustment abilities are limited by genetics and previous experience, the respective role of each of these factors needs to be delineated more accurately. In addition, most experimental studies have been concerned with acute stress, while chronic multiple stress, which is more likely to be encountered in intensive husbandry, has received little attention. The approach in this field is hampered by the lack of suitable physiological criteria to assess long-term adaptive changes. Opportunities for further research are delineated and the need for a more integrated view of stress reactions in farm animals is emphasized.     

豫西黄土丘陵区果、草、牧生态模式研究初报

豫西黄土丘陵区果园面积达 1 6万 hm2 ,土壤有机质缺乏 ,果品产量和质量逐年下降 ;大中型畜牧场污染严重 ,主要污染地表水、地下水、农田和空气 ;水土严重流失。针对这些问题 ,运用生态学原理和系统分析方法 ,因地制宜设计了三种果、草、牧结合生态模式 ,并取得了初步成效     

Review of human-animal interactions and their impact on animal productivity and welfare

Humans and animals are in regular and at times close contact in modern intensive farming systems. The quality of human-animal interactions can have a profound impact on the productivity and welfare of farm animals. Interactions by humans may be neutral, positive or negative in nature. Regular pleasant contact with humans may result in desirable alterations in the physiology, behaviour, health and productivity of farm animals. On the contrary, animals that were subjected to aversive human contact were highly fearful of humans and their growth and reproductive performance could be compromised. Farm animals are particularly sensitive to human stimulation that occurs early in life, while many systems of the animals are still developing. This may have long-lasting impact and could possibly modify their genetic potential. The question as to how human contact can have a positive impact on responses to stressors, and productivity is not well understood. Recent work in our laboratory suggested that pleasant human contact may alter ability to tolerate various stressors through enhanced heat shock protein (hsp) 70 expression. The induction of hsp is often associated with increased tolerance to environmental stressors and disease resistance in animals. The attitude and consequent behaviour of stockpeople affect the animals’ fear of human which eventually influence animals’ productivity and welfare. Other than attitude and behaviour, technical skills, knowledge, job motivation, commitment and job satisfaction are prerequisites for high job performance.     

我国畜牧业可持续发展战略之深思

随着畜牧业集约化的快速发展,畜产品数量得到了大幅度的提高,特别是猪、鸡肉的生产总量跃居世界前两位,从而很好的满足了人们对畜产品数量上的需求,但同时也给我们留下一系列的问题,如自然资源、环境保护、动物疫病控制、畜产品安全、地方畜禽品种资源保护等.我们应该保持清醒的头脑,认清今后的科研和工作任务,较好的解决以上问题,保证我国畜牧业快速持续健康的发展.本文就我国畜牧业发展现状及所需要解决的问题进行了简单地阐述.     

不断发展的中国草原畜牧业

总结了新中国成立60年来我国草原畜牧业的发展情况,指出我国已经探索出一条适合中国特色的草原畜牧业发展道路。草原畜牧业生产水平在不断提高,如牧区每年向农区提供育肥用牛羊达到3 000多万头;草原畜牧业生产结构不断优化;经营模式不断转变,产、加、销一体化格局正在加快形成;草原畜牧业发展基础日益牢固,仅2000年以来,国家对草原保护建设的投入已超过200亿元;草原畜牧业对生态安全和经济发展发挥了重要作用,局部地区生态环境已得到明显改善。但是,受草原生态安全问题,生猪型畜牧业生产特点和草原地区自身发展能力等因素的制约,草原畜牧业发展还面临许多突出矛盾和艰巨挑战。因此,应该积极应对客观矛盾和问题,牢牢把握当前发展的有利机遇,进一步推进草原畜牧业发展。     

Research Advances and Application Status of Timed Artificial Insemination (TAI) in Farm Animals

With the wide application of the artificial insemination (AI) in animal husbandry,the utilization rate of excellent sire got greatly improved.The key point of AI is predicting the time of ovulation and insemination accurately.It is also the point which the animal husbandry technologists highly concerned to improve the application effect of AI.Estrus and ovulation are regulated minutely by reproductive hormones in vivo in farm animals.Timed artificial insemination (TAI) is based on the synchronization of estrus and ovulation,both of which are triggered by reproductive hormones.So the optimal time for AI could be determined from the reproductive hormone treatment.The purpose of TAI is to improve the reproduction performance of farm animals,reduce the workload of identification of estrus,and promote batch management.This review mainly summerized the principles of TAI and its applications status,and the prospects was also discussed.It would provide a reference for the research and application of new reproductive technology in farm animals.     

家畜定时输精技术研究进展与应用现状

随着人工授精技术在畜牧业中的广泛应用,优秀种公畜的利用率得到了极大提高。而人工授精成功的关键是输精的准确性和及时性,因此如何准确预测排卵时间及输精时间是提高人工授精效果的重要途径,也是当前畜牧工作者高度关注的问题。家畜的发情排卵受到体内生殖激素的精密调控,定时输精技术就是在利用生殖激素进行同期发情、同期排卵的基础上,通过调控母畜的发情和排卵来确定人工输精的最佳时间,以期达到提高家畜繁殖性能、减少发情鉴定工作量和促进养殖场批次化管理的目的。作者综述了家畜定时输精的原理及当前的应用现状,同时对其发展前景进行了展望,以期为畜牧业繁殖新技术的研究和应用提供参考依据。     

试论关于发展现代畜牧业问题

在人类畜牧业发展历史进程中,大致可分为3个阶段:原始(天然)畜牧业阶段、传统(副业)畜牧业阶段和现代畜牧业阶段.现代畜牧业的特征是专业化、规模化和社会化(即专业技术服务社会化、信息流通社会化).现代畜牧业的高级阶段是以高生产能力和高劳动生产效益为特征.发展现代畜牧业必须贯彻自力更生的方针,实行"以工哺农"的政策.现代畜牧业的发展将为工业提供原料,促进国家轻工业的发展,繁荣城乡经济.     

The importance of applied ethology for the execution of animal welfare legislation]

Applied ethology in general and farm animal ethology in particular have a great importance in connection with animal welfare regulations on a national and international level. They have through the legislation on animal welfare brought about important repercussions on housing of farm animals, wild animals and experimental animals in Switzerland. The animal welfare legislation has been a considerable boost to scientific research. The application of ethological knowledge in the legislation and in practice has indeed also its limits. The importance of applied ethology for animal welfare and for animal husbandry will still increase in future.     

保护草地生态环境促进川西北牧区畜牧业可持续发展

从川西北草地生态环境和畜牧业可持续发展面临的草地生态恶化、畜牧业经济效益差、草地资源综合利用水平低等主要问题入手 ,提出了草地管理制度创新 ,控制牲畜数量 ,遏制草地退化 ;依靠科技进步 ,推进畜牧业产业化进程 ,提高经济效益 ;开发利用和保护草地自然及人文景观等资源 ;建立科技开发实验区等对策 ,维护草地生态环境 ,实现畜牧业可持续发展。     

Farm animal welfare: the five freedoms and the free market

This review addresses the scientific, ethical and economic factors that impact on the welfare of farm animals. Respect for animals within the food chain is considered within the context of an ethical matrix that affords respect according to the principles of wellbeing, autonomy and justice to consumers, farm animals, farmers and the living environment. The welfare of a farm animal depends on its ability to sustain fitness and avoid suffering. The responsibility of the farmer is to make provision for good welfare through good husbandry; he cannot ensure good welfare. Improvements to farm animal welfare can only come about within the context of the forces that drive the free market. In essence, consumers need to afford a greater extrinsic value to farm animals. The costs to farmers of legislation to impose higher animal welfare standards are substantial but the cost to consumers can be very small. The responsibility is therefore on the consumer to convert an expressed desire for higher welfare standards into an effective demand. A promising route to encourage and fulfil this demand is through welfare-based quality assurance schemes with quality control ensured by independent audit. At present, audit protocols are based largely on identification of the elements of good husbandry. Ultimately we need a further independent audit to ensure that the outcome of these perceived elements of good husbandry is, in fact, good animal welfare.