利用三维超声VCI—C与MRI观察胎儿小脑蚓部发育不良对比研究

目的探讨三维超声容积对比成像C平面技术（Volume Contrast Imaging—Cplane,VCI—C）与MRI两种影像学方法在评估胎JLd,脑蚓部发育不良的价值．方法对小脑蚓部发育正常组胎儿30例和小脑蚓部发育不良组胎儿14例分别行VCI．C及MRI检查,测量胎儿小脑蚓部的高度、前后径和面积;测量脑干-小脑蚓部夹角（brainstem—vermis angle,BV角）、脑干一小脑幕夹角（brainstem—tentorium angle,BT角）,采用配对t检验评估两种影像手段的一致性．结果VCI—C技术与MRI两种方法在测量正常对照组胎儿小脑蚓部的高度、前后径和面积及BV角、BT角差异不具有统计学意义（P〉0．05）,可认为两种影像学方法在测量正常对照组胎儿小脑蚓部的高度、前后径和面积及BV角、BT角方面具有一致性;VCI－C技术与MRI两种方法测量小脑蚓部发育不良组胎儿小脑蚓部的高度、前后径和面积及BV角、BT角差异不具有统计学意义（P〉0．05）,可认为两种影像学方法在测量小脑蚓部发育不良组胎儿小脑蚓部的高度、前后径和面积及BV角、BT角方面具有一致性．结论两种方法在评估胎儿小脑蚓部发育不良方面具有一致性,VCI—C技术可作为产前诊断与鉴别诊断胎儿小脑蚓部发育不良的常规检查手段．     

Acquisition and retention of long-term habituation in Aplysia: correlation of behavioral and cellular processes

To examine the cellular mechanisms responsible for transition from a short-term to a long-term behavioral modification, a rapid training procedure was developed for producing long-term habituation of the defensive withdrawal of gill and siphon in Aplysia. Four ten-trial training sessions, with 1(1/2)-hour intersession intervals, produced habituation that was retained for more than 1 week. This 5-hour procedure could be applied to a test system in the isolated abdominal ganglion where the cellular changes accompanying the acquisition of long-term habituation can be examined. During acquisition, intracellular recordings were obtained from L7, a major gill and siphon motor neuron, and the pattern of stimulation used in the behavioral experiments was applied to an afferent nerve. Acquisition was associated with a progressive decrease in the complex excitatory synaptic potential produced in L7 by afferent nerve stimulation. When retention was tested 24 hours later, the synaptic decrement was still evident. Thus, a behaviorally meaningful stimulus sequence, consisting of only 40 patterned stimuli, leads to changes in synaptic effectiveness lasting one or more days in a neural pathway involved in short-term habituation of this reflex.     

Long-term sensitization of a defensive withdrawal reflex in Aplysia

When a weak tactile stimulus is applied to the siphon of Aplysia californica, the animal withdraws the siphon between the parapodia. This defensive withdrawal reflex can be facilitated (sensitized) if the animal is previously given 4 days of training, consisting of four brief noxious stimuli each day. The sensitization of this reflex can last for up to 3 weeks after training and is mediated by the abdominal ganglion which also mediates long-term habituation. This preparation may provide a system for analyzing the neural mechanism of long-term behavioral modifications of complexity which is intermediate between habituation and associative learning.     

Long-term habituation of a defensive withdrawal reflex in aplysia

A tactile stimulus to the siphon of Aplysia produces a defensive withdrawal reflex consisting of contraction of the siphon, the gill, and the mantle shelf. We studied long-term habituation of this reflex using two types of preparations, one focusing on the siphon component and the other on the gill component of the reflex. Siphon withdrawal, studied in unrestrained animals, showed marked habituation within a single ten-trial training session. Five daily training sessions produced habituaton that built up across days and lasted for at least 3 weeks. Furthermore, spaced training produced significantly longer lasting habituation than massed training. Gill withdrawal, studied in a restrained animal, also showed long-term retention of habituation. Since the neural circuitry of gill withdrawal is relatively well understood, it may be possible to study the cellular mechanisms underlying a long-term behavioral modification.     

Electroencephalographic activation: nonspecific habituation by verbal stimuli

A decrease in the duration of the electroencephalographic activation response to a series of different words: emotional, "neutral," and scrambled occurred. The response to "neutral" words was consistently briefer than that to the other words. This result is evidence of a nonspecific habituation of activation, which implies that habituation to classes of stimuli can occur.     

The short- and long-term impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on family farms in China – Evidence from a survey of 2 324 farms

Family farms are considered the most desirable form of Chinese agriculture. Studies on the risk management of family farms are rare, while the COVID-19 pandemic provides an opportunity to explore how family farms respond to risks. Based on an online survey of 2 324 family crop farms, we examine for the first time the short-term impact (immediate impact or short-term fluctuation, and farms' instantaneous response) and long-term impact (on farms' future or long-term production) of the COVID-19 pandemic on family farms' production and operation in rural China. By using factor analysis and dummy variable regression, we find that the severity of the pandemic, the lockdown of the village, and farmers' knowledge of the pandemic contribute significantly to the short-term impact, but not on the long-term impact. Farmers' characteristics such as gender, age, and education are not related to the short-term impact, but family farms with male owners or owners with high school education or below are more likely to be diversified and large-scale. The number of years the farm has existed for and agricultural insurance affect both short-term and long-term impacts. We suggest that the government needs to pay more attention to stability-enhancing policies, the market environment, vocational training and the agricultural insurance market.     

Habituation and dishabituation in the absence of a central nervous system

Habituation and dishabituation have been observed in a semi-intact Aplysia preparation in which the central nervous system is removed. The amplitude of withdrawal responses in the gill decreases in proportion to the rate of water drops applied (one drop per 0.5 minute to one drop per 2.5 minutes at 15 degrees C). The effects of habituation last for at least 2 hours. A dishabituated response is elicited by stopping the water drops or electrically stimulating the preparation. Furthermore, the gill contains nerve cell bodies, and habituation and dishabituation appear to be properties of these peripheral neurons.     

Selective extraction of small and large molecules from the cerebrospinal fluid by Purkinje neurons

Cerebellar Purkinje neurons accumulated propidium iodide, granular blue, and horseradish peroxidase conjugated to wheat germ agglutinin but not unconjugated horseradish peroxidase, bisbenzimide, or Evans blue when these compounds were infused into the lateral cerebral ventricles of awake, unrestrained rats. Accumulation of propidium iodide by Purkinje neurons of the vermis was associated with a reproducible behavioral abnormality characterized by truncal tremor, ataxia, and nystagmus. Both the accumulation of propidium iodide in Purkinje cells and the behavioral abnormality were prevented by prior intracerebroventricular administration of ouabain or colchicine, drugs that block neuronal transport processes. The ability of cerebellar Purkinje neurons to extract small and large molecules from the cerebrospinal fluid has important implications for their physiology and pathology.     

A determination of the cloud feedback from climate variations over the past decade

Estimates of Earth's climate sensitivity are uncertain, largely because of uncertainty in the long-term cloud feedback. I estimated the magnitude of the cloud feedback in response to short-term climate variations by analyzing the top-of-atmosphere radiation budget from March 2000 to February 2010. Over this period, the short-term cloud feedback had a magnitude of 0.54 ± 0.74 (2σ) watts per square meter per kelvin, meaning that it is likely positive. A small negative feedback is possible, but one large enough to cancel the climate's positive feedbacks is not supported by these observations. Both long- and short-wave components of short-term cloud feedback are also likely positive. Calculations of short-term cloud feedback in climate models yield a similar feedback. I find no correlation in the models between the short- and long-term cloud feedbacks.     

Maturational changes in cerebral function in infants determined by 18FDG positron emission tomography

2-Deoxy-2[18F]fluoro-D-glucose positron emission tomography performed in human infants during development revealed progressive changes in local cerebral glucose utilization. In infants 5 weeks of age and younger, glucose utilization was highest in the sensorimotor cortex, thalamus, midbrain-brainstem, and cerebellar vermis. By 3 months, glucose metabolic activity had increased in the parietal, temporal, and occipital cortices and the basal ganglia, with subsequent increases in frontal and various association regions occurring by 8 months. These functional changes measured with positron emission tomography are in agreement with behavioral, neurophysiological, and anatomical alterations known to occur during infant development.     

A critical period for macromolecular synthesis in long-term heterosynaptic facilitation in Aplysia

Both long-term and short-term sensitization of the gill and siphon withdrawal reflex in Aplysia involve facilitation of the monosynaptic connections between the sensory and motor neurons. To analyze the relationship between these two forms of synaptic facilitation at the cellular and molecular level, this monosynaptic sensorimotor component of the gill-withdrawal reflex of Aplysia can be reconstituted in dissociated cell culture. Whereas one brief application of 1 microM serotonin produced short-term facilitation in the sensorimotor connection that lasted minutes, five applications over 1.5 hours resulted in long-term facilitation that lasted more than 24 hours. Inhibitors of protein synthesis or RNA synthesis selectively blocked long-term facilitation, but not short-term facilitation, indicating that long-term facilitation requires the expression of gene products not essential for short-term facilitation. Moreover, the inhibitors only blocked long-term facilitation when given during the serotonin applications; the inhibitors did not block the facilitation when given either before or after serotonin application. These results parallel those for behavioral performance in vertebrates and indicate that the critical time window characteristic of the requirement for macromolecular synthesis in long-term heterosynaptic facilitation is not a property of complex circuitry, but an intrinsic characteristic of specific nerve cells and synaptic connections involved in the long-term storage of information.     

胡椒碱和山椒醇经历对棉铃虫幼虫取食的影响

【目的】拒食剂是通过改变农作物对害虫的适口性来调控其取食行为的一大类化学物质。使用拒食剂对害虫取食行为进行生态调控,可有效地克服化学防治带来的负面影响。但害虫随着取食经历会对拒食剂表现出很强的味觉适应能力,尤其是味觉习惯化限制了这类物质的大田应用。论文旨在明确两种酰胺类拒食剂胡椒碱和山椒醇作用于多食性棉铃虫（Helicoverpa armigera）幼虫的感觉器官类型,以及两种拒食剂取食经历对棉铃虫后期取食行为的影响,为此类拒食剂在农田大规模应用提供依据。【方法】首先在两项选择式条件下,测试棉铃虫幼虫对胡椒碱和山椒醇的嗅觉趋向性反应,并在非选择性条件下测定棉铃虫幼虫在首次接触山椒醇和胡椒碱处理过的烟草叶碟后的取食持续时间,然后以4龄幼虫的拒食中浓度为基础,研究棉铃虫幼虫前期对含有胡椒碱、山椒醇或二者混合物的饲料的取食经历对后期取食选择反应的影响。【结果】选择性趋性反应测试结果表明,胡椒碱和山椒醇释放到环境中的气味对棉铃虫并没有显著的嗅觉驱避作用。棉铃虫幼虫首次接触处理烟草叶碟后的取食持续时间为30 s左右,比对照叶碟上的取食持续时间（100 s以上）显著缩短,该反应时间和模式昆虫烟草天蛾（Manduca sexta）幼虫典型的味觉摄入后反应的时间相吻合。胡椒碱和山椒醇对4龄棉铃虫幼虫的拒食中浓度分别为0.2259和0.4003 mg/叶碟（1.5 cm ID）。取食经历效应测试发现,有过胡椒碱和山椒醇取食经历的试虫仍然受到相应经历物质的极显著拒食作用,说明两种物质以4龄幼虫拒食中浓度混入人工饲料,从3龄幼虫开始进行取食经历诱导,发育至5龄幼虫期时并没有对所经历的物质产生明显的习惯化现象。有山椒醇经历的试虫极显著受胡椒碱的拒食作用,但有胡椒碱取食经历的试虫则会对山椒醇产生味觉习惯化反应,说明二者存在不对称的交叉习惯化现象。无论是组内处理叶碟和对照叶碟被食量差异的角度分析,还是相同测试环境下不同经历组别拒食反应率的角度进行分析,均未发现胡椒碱和山椒醇组成的二元混合物对味觉习惯化的明显延缓作用。【结论】胡椒碱和山椒醇通过味觉摄入后效应对棉铃虫幼虫起到拒食作用,均不易使棉铃虫幼虫产生习惯化,且混用也不会显著延缓习惯化的过程。这两种酰胺类拒食剂有望在农田应用中兼治更多的靶标害虫。     

Long-term synaptic changes produced by a cellular analog of classical conditioning in Aplysia

A change in synaptic strength arising from the activation of two neuronal pathways at approximately the same time is a form of associative plasticity and may underlie classical or Pavlovian conditioning. A cellular analog of a classical conditioning protocol produces short-term associative plasticity at the connections between sensory and motor neurons in Aplysia. A similar training protocol produced long-term (24-hour) enhancement of excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs). EPSPs produced by sensory neurons in which activity was paired with a reinforcing stimulus were significantly larger than unpaired controls 24 hours after training. Thus, associative plasticity at the sensory to motor neuron connection can occur in a long-term form in addition to the short-term form. In this system, it should be possible to analyze the molecular mechanisms underlying long-term associative plasticity and classical conditioning.     

Neuronal circuit mediating escape responses in crayfish

The neuronal circuit underlying rapid abdominal flexion in response to phasic tactile stimulation comprises identified afferents, interneurons of two orders, a decision unit, and several motor neurons. The circuit is organized hierarchically as a " cascade" in which electrical synapses predominate at higher levels. Behavioral habituation results from lability at chemical junctions early in the pathway.     

cAMP evokes long-term facilitation in Aplysia sensory neurons that requires new protein synthesis

Behavioral sensitization leads to both short- and long-term enhancement of synaptic transmission between the sensory and motor neurons of the gill-withdrawal reflex in Aplysia. Serotonin (5-HT), a transmitter important for short-term sensitization, can evoke long-term enhancement of synaptic strength detected 1 day later. Because 5-HT mediates short-term facilitation through adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate (cAMP)-dependent protein phosphorylation, the role of cAMP in the long-term modulation of this identified synapse was examined. Like 5-HT, cAMP can also evoke long-term facilitation lasting 24 hours. Unlike the short-term change, the long-lasting change is blocked by anisomycin, a reversible inhibitor of protein synthesis, and therefore must involve the synthesis of gene products not required for the short-term change.     

镉胁迫对赤子爱胜蚓(Eisenia fetida)氧化应激反应影响

蚯蚓受重金属胁迫时,体内立即产生氧化应激反应,确定胁迫过程氧化应激主要指标对污染监测尤为重要。将胁迫试验分短期和长期试验两组,前者试验周期为10 d,每天取1条蚯蚓;后者试验周期为30 d,每10 d取1条蚯蚓。每组均设定Cd~(2+)浓度梯度50、100、125、250和500 mg·kg~(-1)重金属胁迫溶液,选择蚯蚓环带后尾部测定体内SOD、POD、GPX、GST、CAT、VE、MDA和ACh E。结果表明,短期试验组,反映蚯蚓体内氧化应激主要指标为CAT、SOD和POD。在长期试验中,反映蚯蚓体内氧化应激主要指标为GPX和MDA。     

Ecological change, group territoriality, and population dynamics in Serengeti lions

Territorial behavior is expected to buffer populations against short-term environmental perturbations, but we have found that group living in African lions causes a complex response to long-term ecological change. Despite numerous gradual changes in prey availability and vegetative cover, regional populations of Serengeti lions remained stable for 10- to 20-year periods and only shifted to new equilibria in sudden leaps. Although gradually improving environmental conditions provided sufficient resources to permit the subdivision of preexisting territories, regional lion populations did not expand until short-term conditions supplied enough prey to generate large cohorts of surviving young. The results of a simulation model show that the observed pattern of "saltatory equilibria" results from the lions' grouping behavior.     

The contribution of single synapses to sensory representation in vivo

The extent to which synaptic activity can signal a sensory stimulus limits the information available to a neuron. We determined the contribution of individual synapses to sensory representation by recording excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs) in cerebellar granule cells during a time-varying, quantifiable vestibular stimulus. Vestibular-sensitive synapses faithfully reported direction and velocity, rather than position or acceleration of whole-body motion, via bidirectional modulation of EPSC frequency. The lack of short-term synaptic dynamics ensured a highly linear relationship between velocity and charge transfer, and as few as 100 synapses provided resolution approaching psychophysical limits. This indicates that highly accurate stimulus representation can be achieved by small networks and even within single neurons.     

海南省城乡居民消费水平差异性分析--基于误差修正模型

根据1985~2014年海南省城乡居民人均消费、人均收入、消费价格指数等数据,探索影响海南城乡居民消费水平和消费差距的主要因素。利用逐步回归进行变量筛选,消除多重共线性,发现农村居民消费水平受收入水平和价格水平的影响显著;城镇居民消费水平由收入水平唯一决定,符合绝对收入假说;城乡居民收入差距和储蓄差距对消费差距影响显著,消费差距函数符合生命周期假说的近似形式。消费水平的误差修正模型的结果表明:收入和物价对农村居民消费水平的长期边际效应大于短期;收入对城镇居民消费水平的短期边际效应大于长期。消费差距的误差修正模型结果表明:城乡收入差距对消费差距的短期效应略大于长期;储蓄差距对消费差距的长期、短期边际效应都较小,长期边际效应略大于短期。Granger检验结果表明,农村居民收入水平、物价水平与消费水平、城镇居民收入水平与消费水平之间存在单向Granger因果关系;消费差距与收入差距、储蓄差距之间不存在Granger因果关系。进一步提出了促进城乡居民消费、缩小城乡消费差距的措施。     

Cerebellar LTD and learning-dependent timing of conditioned eyelid responses

Mammals can be trained to make a conditioned movement at a precise time, which is correlated to the interval between the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus during the learning. This learning-dependent timing has been shown to depend on an intact cerebellar cortex, but which cellular process is responsible for this form of learning remains to be demonstrated. Here, we show that protein kinase C-dependent long-term depression in Purkinje cells is necessary for learning-dependent timing of Pavlovian-conditioned eyeblink responses.