The potential of young,green finger-jointed Eucalyptus grandis lumber for roof truss manufacturing

South Africa is a timber-scarce country that will most probably experience a shortage of structural softwood lumber in the near future. In this study the concept of using young, green finger-jointed Eucalyptus grandis lumber was evaluated for possible application in roof truss structures while the timber is still in the green, unseasoned state. Drying will occur naturally while the lumber is fixed within the roof truss structure. The objectives of this study were (1) to investigate the strength and stiffness variation of the finger-jointed E. grandis product in both the green and dry state for different age and dimension lumber, (2) to investigate the variation in density, warp and checking in the lumber when dried in a simulated roof-space environment and (3) to evaluate the potential of this finger-jointed product as a component in roof truss structures. Green finger-jointed E. grandis lumber of ages 5, 11 and 18 years and dimensions 48×73?mm and 36×111?mm from Limpopo province were evaluated. The study showed that the young finger-jointed E. grandis timber had very good flexural, tensile parallel to grain, and shear properties in both the green and dry state. The mean and characteristic modulus of elasticity and modulus of rupture values of the finger-jointed E. grandis product were higher and the variation lower in comparison to currently used South African pine sources. The tensile perpendicular to grain and compression perpendicular to grain strength did not conform to SANS requirements for the lowest structural grade (S5). Both tree age and product dimension were sources for variation in the physical and strength properties. Based on the results from this study the concept of producing roof trusses from green, finger-jointed young E. grandis timber has potential.     

正交胶合木横纹承压性能研究现状

正交胶合木（CLT）在木结构建筑中应用越来越广泛,特别是在中高层建筑物中。CLT作为楼盖构件使用时,承受柱或墙体施加的垂直荷载,因此CLT产品的设计及应用需要其横纹承压弹性模量和强度方面的参数;改善CLT横纹承压性能,也可以提高整体结构强度和建筑安全系数。文中主要介绍目前CLT横纹承压性能测试方法,总结CLT横纹承压性能影响因素方面的研究进展,以期为国内CLT研究提供参考。     

Property relationships between spruce logs and structural timber

This paper summarises the comparison between log properties and resulting structural timber properties. The establishment of these relationships is a first step to place the grading as early as possible in the production process, if possible directly on the log. To find out what should be detected on the log, the modulus of elasticity (MOE) based on longitudinal frequency, the number of resin pockets and the value for spiral grain were detected. Relationships are established to the corresponding properties on the structural timber produced out of it and to visual log grades commonly used in Austria. This paper discusses advantages and disadvantages of these properties on 85 spruce logs. The MOE based on longitudinal frequency showed high potential whereas the number of resin pockets and the value of spiral grain only helped to identify timber unsuitable for construction.     

近海迎风面毛竹林竹材物理力学性质的研究

竹子是集经济、生态和社会效益于一体的优良林种,有着繁殖容易、成林快、一次造林科学经营可持续利用等优点,是区域社会经济发展和生态环境保护的重要资源,其中,毛竹(Phyllostachys edulis(Carr.)H.de Lehaie)为我国所特有的最重要的经济竹种,具有分布广、面积大、利用领域广、效益好等特点。全国现有毛竹林面积720万hm2,其中,毛竹     

Strength grading of Norway spruce structural timber: revisiting property relationships used in EN 338 classification system

Solid timber for structural applications has to be strength graded prior to its use. In order to remain economic the grading process usually focuses on the most important physical and mechanical properties: density, modulus of elasticity (MOE) and bending strength. Based on respective limits given in standards, the timber is assigned to strength classes. Additional mechanical properties such as tensile and compression strength parallel to the grain are derived from the basic property values by empirical relationships. The objective of this study was to review some of these property relationships based on recently compiled large data sets as a contribution for a future revision of the grading standards. Based on mechanical tests of Norway spruce structural timber with different cross-sections, the following characteristic values and property relationships were evaluated: (a) strength and MOE in bending, (b) in-grade characteristic values of bending strength, bending MOE and density, (c) relationship of characteristic values of tension and compression strength parallel to the grain with respect to the corresponding characteristic value of bending strength, (d) ratio of fifth percentiles and mean values of density and MOE, as well as (e) the ratio of MOE in bending, tension and compression. Mechanical tests were accompanied by measurements of density and ultrasonic wave speed. Resulting dynamic MOE was partly used as an indicator of timber quality.     

毛竹不同种源竹材物理力学性质初步研究

通过对来自福建建瓯试验地16个毛竹种源竹材的密度、顺纹抗压强度、顺纹抗剪强度、顺纹抗拉强度和弦向抗弯强度及其弹性模量等物理力学性质的初步研究,结果表明:竹材物理力学性质在各种源之间存在一定的差异,其中湖南株洲的毛竹竹材物理力学性质比于其它种源的毛竹要好,而安徽霍山的毛竹竹材的物理力学性质较差,测量的各指标中有基本密度、抗剪强度、抗拉强度三项指标都达到最低;竹材密度的大小、抗拉强度的高低随种源纬度的降低而呈降低的趋势,而竹材的抗剪强度呈与之相反的趋势。     

Effects of semi-isostatic densification of wood on the variation in strength properties with density

The variation in strength properties with density was compared between semi-isostatically densified and non-densified wood. Strength properties were compared with published data from earlier studies using other methods for densification. Small clear specimens of eight species were analysed for compression strength in axial, radial and tangential direction, three-point bending and Brinell hardness. After densification, all tested strength properties increased with density, but especially strength perpendicular to grain became lower than expected from the density of non-densified wood. Strength of densified wood relative to what could be expected for non-densified wood of similar density was denoted as ‘strength potential index’. For axial compression strength and bending strength, strength potential index of individual wood species varied between 0.7 and 1.0, i.e. densified wood is slightly weaker than what could be expected from its density. Strength potential index was lower for properties much determined by strength perpendicular to grain. In radial direction, densified wood was rubbery with low modulus of elasticity and nearly no proportional limit or modulus of rupture. Generally, wood was apparently weakened in proportion to the degree of compression in respective direction. Strength potential index also increased with increasing original density of the species.     

Influence of growth stresses and material properties on distortion of sawn timber — numerical investigation

? The board distortion that occurs during the sawing and the drying process causes major problems in the utilisation of sawn timber. The distortion is highly influenced by parameters such as spiral grain angle, modulus of elasticity, shrinkage, growth stresses and sawing pattern.

? In this study a finite element simulation of log sawing and timber drying was performed to study how these parameters interact to affect board distortion. A total of 81 logs with different material combinations were simulated. From each simulated log four boards with different annual ring orientation were studied.

? The results showed that the elastic modulus, shrinkage coefficient and growth stresses had a large influence on the final bow and spring deformation. After sawing of the log into boards, the release of growth stresses was the main contributor to the bow and spring deformation. For boards with low modulus of elasticity, the bending distortion became larger than for the boards with high modulus of elasticity. The twist deformation was very small after sawing but increased significantly during drying of the boards. The results showed that spiral grain angle and the board location within the log were the main contributors to the twist deformation.

     

毛竹维管束的拉伸性能研究

采用机械剥离的方法制取竹材不同部位的维管束,并用激光共聚焦显微镜确定维管束的组成与面积,使用微型万能力学试验机测试维管束的拉伸强度和模量。试验结果表明,沿竹材径向内层到外层,维管束的强度和模量不同,拉伸强度在290～950MPa之间,模量在19～55GPa之间。     

Evaluation and modelling of perpendicular to grain embedment strength

Different test setups for determining perpendicular to grain embedment strength of timber have been reported in literature. In addition, different definitions of strength have been used associated with the deformation level underneath the fastener. It is shown that all reported experimental results can be related, which enables comparison on a common basis. Furthermore, several models for embedment strength perpendicular to the grain which primarily depend on timber density (specific gravity) and fastener diameter are evaluated. It is shown that the model currently prescribed by the European structural timber design code [Comité Européen de Normalisation (CEN) EN 1995-1-1: 2004: Eurocode 5—design of timber structures. Part 1.1: general rules and rules for buildings. CEN, Brussels, 2004] is unable to accurately predict the strength and an alternative is proposed. This may result in more reliable timber connections in applying the European Yield Model to determine the connection strength.     

木质工字梁翼缘用杨木-酚醛树脂LVL密度的控制意义

对不同密度木质工字梁(IJ)翼缘用杨木酚醛树脂LVL(P-PF-LVL)垂直胶层静曲弹性模量(MOEB)、纵向抗拉强度(MORT)、静曲强度(MORB)和水平剪切强度(MORS)的检测,分析结果表明:1)可以利用MOEB、MORT、MORB和MORS与密度的正相关关系来设计包括IJ翼缘用LVL在内LVL的适当密度,以控制结构用LVL的目标力学性能;2)梁问距为490mm、梁跨为4 500mm、设计荷载为2.5kN/m2的241mm高的IJ翼缘用P-PF-LVL的最小安全密度应略大于0.553g/cm3同时建议提高国标GB/T20241-2006对结构用LVL的MORB的要求,增设结构用LVL的MORT.     

钩梢对5年生毛竹竹材物理力学性质的影响

毛竹(Phyllostachys edulis)秆形通直、材性优良,是利用范围最广、经济价值最大的竹种(刘亚迪等,2008);但同时因毛竹秆高大、枝叶繁茂,是受风雪灾害影响较大的林种之一(肖本权,2003)。2008年初,我国南方遭受了严重的雨雪冰冻灾害,涉及湖南、安徽、浙江、江西等19个省(区、市),受灾森林面积1860万hm2(祝列克,2008),受灾中心区域为毛竹的主分布区,占我国毛竹林面积的70%以上。据统计,全国竹林受灾面积约400万hm2,其中80%为毛竹林(李潇晓,2008)。在竹林培育中,为应对雨雪冰冻灾     

云南松木材材性与生长性状相关性研究

对云南松不同种源及其单株的木材材性与树木生长性状相关性的研究结果表明 :木材纹理度与树木的高生长呈极显著的负相关 ,与木材力学性能有显著的负相关 ;木材的力学性能与树高、胸径呈显著的正相关 ,与木材密度呈正相关性 ,其中密度又与抗弯强度、顺纹抗压强度有极显著的正相关 ;树木的生长性状与木材密度没有明显的相关性。经综合选择 ,从参试的永平试验点 2 8个种源 82个单株及昆明大马山 8个种源 2 2个单株中 ,评选出 8个综合性状较好的优良单株 ,为云南松单板类人造板材良种选育提供了评价依据     

A three-dimensional paradigm of fiber orientation in timber

Knowledge of the three-dimensional orthogonal directions of wood material at any position within a tree is necessary for the understanding of strength reducing effects of knots and essential for the continuation of research in areas which relate small clear wood specimen behavior to the behavior of full size structural timber. A complete three-dimensional paradigm describing the geometry of knots and related fiber distortion, initially derived to predict the strength-reducing behavior of knots in structural timber of Norway Spruce with the finite element method, is presented in this article. Besides strength prediction analyses, it is believed that the paradigm may be useful in other areas of research on structural timber that are effected by fiber orientation, such as drying and form change of structural timber. The paradigm generates fiber orientation in any position within a log or lumber from assumed fiber patterns in planes parallel to the longitudinal direction of the original tree. Fiber patterns in the radial and tangential directions are derived from physical restraints related to fiber production within the annual increase surfaces of the tree and from theories of knot formation. The adaptability of the paradigm allows practically any softwood knot to be modeled with an accuracy that is limited only by input-data. The knot-axis may be non-linear, and the knot cross-section oval with its vertical and horizontal axis increasing from the pith of the stem at chosen rates. Spiral grain may also be included in the paradigm and vary with the annual growth layers. Investigations presented in this article showed that generated fiber orientations for Picea abies complied well with measured fiber distortions, and that the general trends of fiber orientation, explained by the applied knot formation theory, is reflected in the measured specimens. Received 12 May 1999     

Quality of timber products from Norway spruce

Summary The overall aim of this study and series of papers is to address the key variables for timber quality and to optimize the utilization of Norway spruce timber with respect to construction purposes. It is the end-user's degree of overall satisfaction that determines the quality of a product. Therefore, the performance of structural timber cannot solely be defined by mechanical properties. Geometric performance (warp) must be improved if timber is to continue as an important building material.An experimental study of the spatial variation in warp and bending properties of fast-grown Norway spruce is introduced. In this paper, the growth characteristics are presented as a function of stand and location in the tree. The knot area ratio (KAR) was considerably higher in the core (0.31) compared with timber closer to bark (0.21). The top log studs had higher KAR (0.38) than the corresponding butt log studs (0.31). The average grain angle was 3.5% ( 2°) and appeared not to vary radially. The presence of compression wood was much more common in the top log timber (75%) than in the butt log (44%). However, no consistent radial variation in compression wood was found.The authors gratefully acknowledge the support from EEC Forest programme, Contract No. MA2B-0024 and from Södra Timber AG from NUTEK project No. 9100554     

Strength and stiffness capacity utilisation of timber members in roof truss structures

The main objective of this study was to determine which property, of the six strength and stiffness properties used in structural timber design, was the most influential in the design of nail-plated roof trusses. Thirty recently completed nail-plated roof truss designs were randomly selected from three roof truss manufacturing plants and a total of 8 758 individual truss members were analysed for bending stress, shear stress parallel to grain, tensile stress parallel to grain, compression stress parallel to grain and deflection. The mean strength and stiffness capacity utilised of all the different design properties was well below 50% for all of the different dimension classes. Of all the individual strength properties, the mean bending strength capacity utilised per member was found to be the highest. The results of this study can be used for decision support related to wood property evaluation through? out the structural lumber value chain where roof truss members are the end products.     

Strength properties of thermally modified softwoods and its relation to polymeric structural wood constituents

Thermal modification at relatively high temperatures (ranging from 150 to 260 °C) is an effective method to improve the dimensional stability and resistance against fungal attack. This study was performed to investigate the impact of heat treatment on the mechanical properties of wood. An industrially-used two-stage heat treatment method under relative mild conditions (< 200 °C) was used to treat the boards. Heat treatment revealed a clear effect on the mechanical properties of softwood species. The tensile strength parallel to the grain showed a rather large decrease, whereas the compressive strength parallel to the fibre increased after heat treatment. The bending strength, which is a combination of the tensile stress, compressive stress and shear stress, was lower after heat treatment. This decrease was less than the decrease of only the tensile strength. The impact strength showed a rather large decrease after heat treatment. An increase of the modulus of elasticity during the bending test has been noticed after heat treatment. Changes and/or modifications of the main wood components appear to be involved in the effects of heat treatment on the mechanical properties. The possible effect of degradation and modification of hemicelluloses, degradation and/or crystallization of amorphous cellulose, and polycondensation reactions of lignin on the mechanical properties of heat treated wood have been discussed. The effect of natural defects, such as knots, resin pockets, abnormal slope of grain and reaction wood, on the strength properties of wood appeared to be affected by heat treatment. Nevertheless, heat treated timber shows potential for use in constructions, but it is important to carefully consider the stresses that occur in a construction and some practical consequences when heat treated timber is used.     

Withdrawal capacity of washers in bolted timber connections

Abstract

The European yield model (EYM) has been accepted to determine the load-carrying capacity of structural timber connections. However, experiments of bolted connections are still not in agreement with the EYM unless the additional bearing capacity offered by the washers is taken into account. This bearing capacity is depending on the compressive strength perpendicular to grain of the structural timber. Tests results carried out with M16 and M24 washers on solid and glued laminated timber are used to verify the reliability of three strength capacity predicting models, one of which is an analytical model while the other two are empirical. It was concluded that the analytical model is the superior one. This model should be incorporated in all new structural timber design code revisions.     

安徽霍山不同海拔毛竹材力学性质分析

安徽霍山县靠近毛竹天然分布的北部边缘,其独特的地理位置及气候条件影响着毛竹材的各项特性,其中海拔是影响毛竹材力学性质的重要因子。以安徽霍山不同海拔（设120、230、370、510和600 m 5种海拔处理）的毛竹材为试验材料,研究了海拔因子对竹材力学性质的影响。结果表明：海拔因子对霍山毛竹的竹材密度有一定影响,随海拔升高,竹材的气干密度和全干密度呈增大趋势,但差异不大;海拔因子对竹材的顺纹抗压强度和顺纹抗剪强度有显著影响,但对顺纹抗拉强度影响不大。霍山毛竹材的各项力学特性接近传统的建筑用木材,经过合理加工可以替代传统木质建筑材料。     

15年生巨尾桉人工林木材物理力学性质的研究

为了更好开发利用15年生巨尾桉人工林木材,本研究以广西南宁市树木园15年生巨尾桉(Eucalyptus×E.urophylla)人工林木材为研究对象,对其物理以及力学性质进行了测试、分析。结果表明,15年生巨尾桉属中密度等级材,体积干缩系数小;抗弯强度,抗弯弹性模量、顺纹抗压强度和冲击韧性分别为83.9、12790、44.2、65KJ/m2,对应的强度等级分别为2级、3级、1级、2级;端面、弦面和径面的硬度分别为68.9、51.3、55.1MPa,其中端面硬度已经达到了4级标准,弦面和径面的硬度也达到了三级标准。木材综合强度为128.1MPa,属高强度树种;木材的综合品质系数达到了191.2GPa,属于低等级材。