Dynamic simulation of disintegration of wood chips caused by impact and collisions during the steam explosion pretreatment

Steam explosion (SE) pretreatment produces damaged and disintegrated biomass with a large surface area which facilitates enzymatic hydrolysis for the production of biofuels and other value-added chemicals. It was observed during experiments that wood chips disintegrate into smaller pieces because of collisions and impact with each other and the walls of the SE equipment. In this study, these events were simulated using the finite element method. Wood chips were simulated in this model as a linear elastic material until failure. The damage initiation was identified using Hashin’s damage initiation criteria. Once the damage was initiated, additional loading caused the evolution of damage, i.e. degradation and breakage of the material, which was modelled using the material property degradation model and deletion of the failed elements. Elastic and strength properties of spruce wood were estimated at ambient conditions (12 % moisture content at 20 °C) and at SE conditions (30 % moisture content at 160 °C). Comparison of simulations performed using material properties at ambient and SE conditions revealed that the damage in wood chips significantly increased because of the steam treatment. The effects of wood chip velocity and orientation at the time of impact were studied as well. It was found that wood chips moving at high velocity and impacting with the steel wall in the radial direction acquire the most damage.     

Effects of steam explosion on wood appearance and structure of sub-alpine fir

The technology of steam explosion was applied to pre-treat sub-alpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt.) lumber and to improve its drying characteristics. Effects of steam explosion on the appearance and structure of the lumber are discussed in this paper. The structure of the wood was examined using light microscope (LM) and scanning electron microscope (SEM). The following results were obtained. With increasing temperature, pressure, and explosion cycles the color of the lumber darkened gradually. No significant structural difference between treated and untreated samples was observed using LM when the treatments were carried out at temperatures below 130°C with ten explosion cycles (group A or B). Some fractures were observed in bordered pit pairs between tracheids after 20 explosion cycles at 130°C (group C). More fractures occurred in bordered pit pairs between earlywood tracheids at a temperature of 160°C (group D). More or less fractures in pits between ray parenchyma cells and earlywood tracheids were observed using SEM in all four cases of treatments. Although no change in bordered pits in the tracheid walls between group A and the control group was discovered, groups B, C, and D showed different extents of ruptures in bordered pits, which may lead to break aspirated pits and improve permeability. In these groups, wrinkles and separations in the inner tracheid walls and detachments in middle lamella also occurred and became more serious as temperature or cycles of the treatment increased.     

Effects of steam explosion processing and organic acids on CCA removal from treated wood waste

Chromated copper arsenate (CCA) is the primary wood preservative used in the United States. CCA products are used for decking, fencing, retaining walls, docks, poles, and highway sign posts. Since CCA became popular in the early 1970's, it is estimated that over 140 million cubic meters of these products are in service. Although the EPA allows disposal of spent CCA products in landfills, increasingly they are looking at the possibility of restricting its disposal. One method for potential re-use of CCA treated wood fiber would be to remove the treatment chemicals and process the fiber into energy or consumer products. The objectives of this research were to determine which method(s) can improve the removal of copper, chromium, and arsenate from spent CCA-treated lumber. The best material, in this research, for leaching chemicals from treated wood with organic acids, were particles (compared to chips and steam exploded wood). Without the functions of organic acids, the best method to remove chemicals proved to be steam explosion and further extraction by water. Citric acid was the most effective acid used in the removal of treatment chemicals of the three acids evaluated: acetic, citric, and sulfuric. The time effect on the extraction process indicated that most of the treatment chemicals were removed within the first seven days of treatment. This study also indicates that steam explosion does not increase the extractability of the chemical components. Other methods need to be examined which may lead to better removal of the chemicals or more effective methods to recycle spent CCA products.     

Influence of temperature and steam environment on set recovery of compressive deformation of wood

Low-density hybrid poplar wood (Populus deltoides?×?Populus trichocarpa) was densified by mechanical compression under saturated steam, superheated steam, and transient conditions at temperature levels of 150, 160, and 170°C. Furthermore, compression of wood under saturated steam conditions at 170°C, followed by post-heat-treatment at 200°C for 1, 2, and 3?min, was performed. To determine the influence of compression treatment on the set recovery, specimens were subjected to five cycles of water soaking and drying. Modulus of rupture (MOR) and modulus of elasticity (MOE) of specimens compressed under saturated steam conditions at 170°C and post-heat-treated at 200°C were determined in the dry condition and after five soak/dry cycles. Higher temperature of the compression treatment resulted in lower equilibrium moisture content, while the steam conditions during the treatment and the post-heat-treatment did not have significant effect. Furthermore, the highest degree of densification was obtained in specimens compressed under saturated steam conditions at 170°C and post-heat-treated at 200°C. The steam condition and temperature influenced the set recovery of compressive deformation. Reduced hygroscopicity does not necessarily imply reduced set recovery. The results established that considerable fixation of compressive deformation can be obtained by compressing the wood in a saturated steam environment and by post-heat-treatment at 200°C. The short heat-treatment had no influence on MOR or MOE, but soaking/drying treatments caused a decrease in the MOR and MOE.     

木质粉尘燃爆的爆炸指数理论评估

从燃烧化学反应动力学出发,结合热力学原理以及气体分子动理论,提出了木粉燃爆的动力学理论模型,对木粉燃爆试验的测量数据进行了理论计算。在不同木粉浓度以及不同木粉粒径下,将本模型的计算结果与已有模型的理论计算结果对比。结果表明:本模型的理论结果更接近试验测量结果,最大爆炸压力以及最大压力上升速率理论计算值与试验数据的平均偏差仅为9%。此外,利用本理论模型计算了最大压力上升速率随连续木粉浓度的变化曲线,得到在木粉质量浓度845 g/m3附近,爆炸指数的极大值为14.57 MPa·m/s。爆炸指数大于10 MPa·m/s的木粉质量浓度为330～1 945 g/m3,在此区间,利用本理论模型可以对不同浓度木粉的爆炸指数进行理论估算。研究得到的相关结果对试验测量以及实际生产中的燃爆防控技术均有理论指导意义。     

Hydration behavior and compressive strength of cement mixed with exploded wood fiber strand obtained by the water-vapor explosion process

Poor compatibility was found between exploded wood fiber strand (WFS) and cement due to the excessive presence of water-soluble degraded polysaccharides in extractives of exploded WFS obtained from weathered wood waste treated by the water-vapor explosion process (WVEP). This study presents some comparative results from a continuing investigation on the compressive strengths of exploded WFS–cement mixtures. Based on results previously obtained with the hydration test, the relation between hydration behavior and compressive strength of the mixture was explored. In addition, the effect of the curing age on compressive strength development of the mixture with selected additive chemicals was examined. The results supported the results of early studies with hydration tests indicating that adding MgCl₂ to the mixtures of exploded WFS mixed with quick-curing cement or ordinary Portland cement and a composite of MgCl₂ + CaO added to the mixture of exploded WFS and furnace-slag cement effectively improved the hydration behaviors; it greatly enhanced the compressive strengths of mixtures as well. Compressive strengths were strongly correlated to maximum hydration temperatures (T_max) of wood–cement mixtures influenced by the cement type, wood wastes (treated or not with WVEP), additive chemicals, and their content levels. The results also indicated that adding selected chemicals had no significant effect on compressive strength among the mixtures of exploded WFS mixed, respectively, with three types of cement at a curing age of 180 days. X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy were used to identify the hydration products and to probe the element distribution of the mixture in the wood–cement interface zone from a fractured surface.Part of this report was presented at the 52nd Annual Meeting of the Japan Wood Research Society, Gifu, April 2002     

刨花蒸汽处理提高刨花板的尺寸稳定性

本研究探索用高压饱和蒸汽处理刨花来提高刨花板的尺寸稳定性。分别对云杉(Picea spp。)和桦木(Betula spp。)找出了不同的蒸汽压力和处理时间与刨花板的弹性模量、静曲强度、平面抗拉强度和线性膨胀率之间的关系,并得出结论:蒸汽处理刨花时较适宜的工艺条件为:蒸汽压力1.3N/mm~2左右,蒸汽处理时间5～6min;经蒸汽处理后桦木刨花板尺寸稳定性的改善程度优于云杉刨花板。     

Tangential and radial deformation field measurements on wood during drying

Summary In a previous study, the deformation field measurement method on wood during drying was described. This paper discusses the deformation field measurement results during drying to 8.2% moisture content on the radial and tangential surfaces. It also attempts to explain the observations by an approximate expression based onearlywood-latewood interaction theory. The deformation on the radial surface varied between –0.7% and 7.5%. The actual measurements on the radial surfaces support previous work. Deformation measurements on the tangential surfaces were between –0.5% and 9.0%. Although the investigations were carried out on gross wood specimens, the results provide an insight into the extent to which local density variation within the early- and latewood layers may influence the magnitude of surface deformation.The authors thank Dr. Fredrik Bergholm at the Computational Vision and Active Preception, Anders Boberg and Hans Markstedt at The Department of Geodesy and Photogrammetry, Andreas Cronhjort and Anders Larsson at The Internal Combustion Engine at KTH for their assistance in utilizing different equipment in these experiments     

Chemical structure and thermal properties of lignin modified with polyethylene glycol during steam explosion

Thermoplastic processing of lignin is restricted by its high glass transition temperature (T _g). In this study, lignin was modified with polyethylene glycol (PEG) during steam explosion to improve its thermoplastic properties, and the effects of steam explosion and PEG on the chemical structure and thermal properties of lignin were investigated. Structure characterization using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy showed that hydroxyl and ether functional groups increased and the activity of lignin was improved by steam explosion. In addition, steam explosion treatment was more effective than heat treatment for promoting the reaction of PEG with lignin. Solid-state ¹³C NMR revealed that PEG was grafted onto lignin. The T _g of raw lignin was 164.1 °C; after steam explosion, lignin exhibited more than one T _gs. The T _g of lignin was reduced when the steam explosion temperature increased and decreased further, to around 60 °C, when PEG was used to modify lignin. Therefore, this work provides an effective approach to reducing the high T _g of lignin.     

Changes in chemical characteristics of bamboo (Phyllostachys pubescens) components during steam explosion

Chemical changes in cell wall components of bamboo internode during steam explosion process were analyzed to investigate self-binding mechanism of binderless board from steam-exploded pulp. More than 30% of xylose on initial mass, which is a major hydrolyzate of bamboo hemicelluloses, was lost after steam explosion treatment. Bamboo lignin is characterized by the presence of ester- and/or ether-linked p-coumaric acid to lignin. The content of phenolic hydroxyl groups of lignin isolated from steam-exploded pulp was characterized 2.3 times higher than those of the extract-free bamboo internode due to the cleavage of β-O-4 linkages. Alkaline nitrobenzene oxidation of the bamboo lignin gave vanillin, syringaldehyde and p-hydroxybenzaldehyde as major products. The content of p-hydroxybenzaldehyde decreased after steam explosion treatment, indicating the cleavage of ester- and/or ether-linked p-coumaric acid. The total yield of erythronic and threonic acids in ozonation products of the extract-free bamboo internode lignin was 268 mmol (200 g lignin)⁻¹, while those of lignins in the steam-exploded pulp and powdery fraction were 96 and 129 mmol (200 g lignin)⁻¹, respectively, suggesting the significant cleavage of β-O-4 linkages during steam explosion treatment. The cleavage of β-O-4 linkages was also confirmed by ¹H- and ¹³C-NMR spectroscopic observations.     

Discoloured wood of aspen caused by increment boring

Decay resulting from increment borings varies with tree species. Trembling aspen (Populus tremuloidcs Michx.) in Newfoundland is seriously affected by this particular wound. Three years after 20 trees had been bored, none had healed probably because of a pronounced split of the bark. The wood discoloration extended horizontally to about 2 cm on each side and vertically half metre above and below the wound. Peniophora polygonia (Pers. ex Fr.) Bourd. et Galz. was the most common fungus isolated while Polyporus adustus Willd. ex Fr. and several imperfect fungi and bacteria were also present.     

蒸汽爆破处理对竹纤维的影响

以小径级毛竹为研究对象,研究了蒸汽爆破处理对制备竹纤维的影响.利用傅里叶红外光谱和扫描电镜对爆破处理前后竹纤维化学成分和纤维形态进行分析.结果表明:蒸汽爆破对竹纤维分离效果好,纤维直径减小,保压时间越长,纤维分散效果越好,柔软性越好.爆破处理能够有效促进纤维中半纤维素降解和木质素的分离,使溶出物颗粒覆盖在纤维表面.蒸汽爆破处理使得竹纤维比表面积增大,改善了竹纤维的形态结构.     

Study of hydration behaviors of wood-cement mixtures: compatibility of cement mixed with wood fiber strand obtained by the water-vapor explosion process

To provide information on the feasibility of using exploded wood fiber strand (WFS) obtained by the water-vapor explosion process in wood-cement mixtures, the compatibility between cement and exploded WFS and its improvement with various additive chemicals were investigated by observation and analysis on hydration behaviors in terms of hydration characteristics: maximum hydration temperature (T _max) and required time (t _max). The three types of cement, six additive chemicals, and exploded WFS (sugi, air-dried and water-soaked) were employed as raw materials in this study. The hydration behaviors of mixtures demonstrated that exploded WFS had strong retarding effects on cement hydration and completely prevented mixtures from setting. The analysis of sugar revealed that the sugar contents of exploded WFS were much higher than those in unexploded wood and increased to about 20-fold (air-dried) and 10-fold (water-soaked), respectively. The degraded polysaccharides became a major factor and played an important role in inhibiting the setting of cement. Moreover, high-performance liquid chromatography analysis proved that the main peaks representing the molecular weight of polysaccharides in extractives of exploded WFS shifted markedly to a lower range of polymerization. MgCl₂ was determined to be an effective additive chemical for restraining the inhibitory influences. Addition contents of 2%–3% and 4%–5% were available and acceptable for quick-curing cement and ordinary Portland cement, respectively. As for the furnace-slag cement, the composite additive chemicals of MgCl₂ (4%) and CaO (2%) were found to have an obvious accelerating effect.Part of this report was presented at the 51th Annual Meeting of the Japan Wood Research Society, Tokyo, April 2001     

Drying characteristics of wood under vacuum-superheated steam

This paper presents comparison and analysis of thermal-dynamic characteristics of air-drying and superheated steam drying under vacuum. The result reveals that for both convective heat transfer coefficient and resistance of mass transfer on the surface, superheated steam drying under vacuum is superior to air-drying under the same condition. With Masson pine as specimen,we found that the inversion temperature really exists through comparable experiments of air-drying and superheated steam drying under vacuum. When temperature is above inversion point of temperature, drying speed is faster than that of air-drying; however, if temperature is below the point, the result is opposite. The inversion temperature of experiment ranges from 80 to 85 ℃.     

Modeling the kinetics of moisture adsorption by wood

Summary Modeling of the kinetic of moisture adsorption by wood has been studied by using cubic samples. The model is based on an explicit numerical method with finite differences. Experiments have been carried out either for determining the data necessary for calculations (diffusivity, amount adsorbed at equilibrium) and for testing the validity of the model. Two different experiments have been done in case of the longitudinal adsorption: the one by increasing the relative humidity of the atmosphere following a discontinuous step by step process. The other by determining the kinetic adsorption of moisture by samples previously equilibrated under the same conditions when they are contacted with atmosphere at various R. H. Good correlations are obtained between calculated values and experiments in both cases. Although the actual paper is concerned with constant diffusivity, the model is capable to use concentration-dependent diffusivities.This work has been done with the help and support of the French C.T.B. (Wood Technical Center), 10 Av. St.-Mandé, Paris     

Modeling rot in wood by replacement of wood with sand: an experimental study

Rot is known to affect the strength properties of wood. At the same time, the damping properties of the attacked material have also been shown to change. This article presents the results of an experimental study in which rot in wood was modeled by the replacement of wood with sand. The procedure entailed the drilling of holes in the body of a wooden beam, filling the holes with sand, and monitoring the changes induced by the sand-filled holes on the values of the modulus of elasticity (MOE) and of the loss factor. The MOE was calculated from the resonance frequency of the first longitudinal mode of vibration, and the loss factor was obtained indirectly from the impulse response by means of a room acoustical technique. The results show that the MOE value, and hence the strength characteristic of the wood specimen, decreases at the same time as the loss factor increases.     

用红外光谱分析刨花蒸汽处理后成分的变化

用红外光谱法分析了云杉和白桦刨化蒸汽处埋后成分的变化。红外谱图不出了蒸汽处埋后刨花中的半纤维素和羟基比未处理的减少了,这是蒸汽处理改善刨花板尺寸稳定性的主要原因。红外谱图还示出了在同样的蒸汽处理条件下,白桦中半纤维素和羟基的减少程度大于云杉的减少程度,因此蒸汽处理后白桦刨花板尺寸稳定性的改善程度大于云杉刨花板的改善程度。     

Antioxidant activity of liquors from steam explosion of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Olea europea</Emphasis> wood

The liquors from steam explosion of Olea europea wood carried out at temperatures in the range of 190–240°C were analysed for phenolic content, radical scavenging capacity and reducing power. Increased ethyl acetate solubles (EAS) and phenolics [as Gallic Acid Equivalents, (GAE)] extraction yield with increasing temperature were observed. At the higher temperature tested, up to 2.3 g EAS/100 g dry wood were obtained with 0.7 g GAE/100 g dry wood. The purity of the phenolic extracts was independent of the temperature (30 g GAE/100 g EAS). The lignin derived compounds increased steadily with temperature in the studied range, whereas the sugar decomposition products showed a maximum at 230°C. The radical scavenging capacity was slightly higher for the samples produced at the lowest temperature, and comparable to those of synthetic antioxidants. At 0.5 g/L the FRAP (Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power) and Trolox Equivalent Antioxidant Activity (TEAC) values were equivalent to 1 and 2–3 mM ascorbic acid, respectively. EA extracts were less effective than Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) for protecting the oxidation in emulsions.