Development and activity of early saproxylic fungal communities in harvested and unmanaged boreal mixedwood stands

Limited scientific information is currently available regarding saproxylic fungal communities in the boreal forest of North America. We aimed to characterize the community development, richness and activity of saproxylic fungi on fresh wood in harvested and unmanaged boreal mixedwood stands of northwestern Québec (Canada). Fresh wood blocks (n = 480) of balsam fir (Abies balsamea (L.) Mill.) and trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.) were placed on the forest floor in a range of stand conditions (n = 24). Blocks were harvested every 6 months for up to 30 months and characterized for species composition and richness (PCR–DGGE, DNA sequencing), respiration, wood density and lignin and cellulose content. Colonization by a wide range of functional groups proceeded rapidly under different stand conditions. We detected a total of 35 different fungal operational taxonomic units, with the highest species richness at the wood block level being observed within the first 12 months. No differences in community composition were found between wood host species or among stand conditions. However, the variability in fungal communities among blocks (β diversity) was lower on trembling aspen wood compared with balsam fir and decreased over time on trembling aspen wood. Also, fungal activity (respiration and wood decomposition) increased on trembling aspen wood blocks and species richness decreased on balsam fir wood over time in partial-cut sites. The overlap in tree composition among stands, the high volume of logs and the recent management history of these stands may have contributed to the similarity of the saproxylic fungal community among stand types and disturbances.     

Medicinal understory herbaceous species cultivated under different light and soil conditions in maple forests in southern Québec,Canada

Many northern hardwood understory plants have medicinal properties but their cost of production under conventional cultivation practices is fairly high. Therefore wild harvesting continues putting the natural populations at risk. Their cultivation in a forest farming system seems a promising alternative. This study was aimed at assessing the impact of canopy opening and soil fertility on growth and active component production of four medicinal plants: black cohosh (Actaea racemosa), wild ginger (Asarum canadense), blue cohosh (Caulophyllum thalictroides) and bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis). Rhizome sections were planted in two sugar maple forests. Mortality and total leaf area were monitored during 3 years, while subplots were harvested at the end of the second year for biomass and active component analyses. Multiple regressions indicated that all species responded more to acidity related elements (pH, Al, Al + H, Fe, Zn) than to soil fertility (Ca, K, Mg, P, C/N, base saturation and cation exchange capacity). This suggests that adjusting the pH by liming could be appropriate. Growth increased with irradiance, except for blue cohosh, indicating that forest openings could also be part of an appropriate forest management plan for their cultivation. While active component concentrations of rhizomes and roots increased in conditions that negatively affected growth, such as low pH, soil fertility or light availability, their total active component content exhibited responses that were similar to those of the growth variables. Thus, it seems that soil and light conditions that favour the growth of these medicinal plants also favour their total yield in active components.     

Ectomycorrhizal communities associated with silver fir seedlings (Abies alba Mill.) differ largely in mature silver fir stands and in Scots pine forecrops

Context

The requirement for rebuilding forecrop stands besides replacement of meadow vegetation with forest plants and formation of soil humus is the presence of a compatible ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungal community.

Aims

This study aims to assess ectomycorrhizal fungi diversity associated with silver fir (Abies alba Mill.) seedlings regenerating in silver fir stands and Scots pine forecrops.

Methods

One-year-old seedlings were sampled in six study sites: three mature fir forests and three pine forests. ECM fungi were identified by polymerase chain reaction amplification and sequencing of the internal transcribed spacer of rDNA.

Results

The mean mycorrhizal colonization exceeded 90 %. Thirty-six ectomycorrhizal taxa were identified in fir stands and 23 in pine forecrops; ten out of these species were common to both stands. The fungal communities were different between study sites (R?=?0.1721, p?=?0.0001). Tomentella stuposa was the only species present at all sites.

Conclusion

Silver fir seedlings in Scots pine forecrops supported smaller ECM fungal communities than communities identified in mature silver fir stands. Nevertheless, fungal colonization of seedling roots was similar in both cases. This suggests that pine stands afforested on formerly arable land bear enough ECM species to allow survival and growth of silver fir seedlings.     

Pharmacological mechanisms of black cohosh in Sprague-Dawley rats

Background

Studies indicate that extracts and purified components from black cohosh inhibit the growth of human breast cancer cells, but the molecular targets and signaling pathways have not yet been defined.

Purpose

This study examines the pharmacological mechanisms and toxicological effects in the short term of the herb black cohosh on female Sprague–Dawley rats.

Materials and methods

To assess effects on gene activity and lipid content, we treated female Sprague–Dawley rats with an extract of black cohosh enriched in triterpene glycosides (27%) at 35.7 or 0 mg/kg. Four animals for each group were sacrificed at 1, 6 and 24 h after treatment; liver tissue and serum samples were obtained for gene expression and lipid analysis.

Results

Microarray analysis of rat liver tissue indicated that black cohosh markedly downregulated mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation genes. Phospholipid biosynthesis and remodeling, PI3-Kinase and sphingosine signaling were upregulated, driven largely by an upregulation of several isoforms of phospholipase C. Hierarchical clustering indicated that black cohosh clustered with antiproliferative compounds, specifically tubulin binding vinca alkaloids and DNA alkylators. In support of this, black cohosh repressed the expression of cyclin D1 and ID3, and inhibited the proliferation of HepG2, p53 positive, liver cancer cells. Black cohosh reduced the level of free fatty acids at 6 and 24 h and triglycerides at 6 h in the serum, but increased the free fatty acid and triglyceride content of the treated livers at 24 h.

Conclusion

Our results suggest that black cohosh warrants further study for breast cancer prevention and therapy.     

Light intensity affects the growth and flavonol biosynthesis of Ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba L.)

Response of growth and secondary metabolites to light intensity are useful measurements to determine suitable silviculture treatments for the cultivation of medicinal plants. Here, we analyzed the growth, flavonols (total flavonol, quercetin, kaempferol, and isorhamnetin) content, flavonols yield per plant, and expression of flavonoid biosynthesis-related genes in 2-year Ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba L.) seedlings at four different light intensities (100, 76, 40, and 25 % of full sunlight) in a greenhouse setting. Across all light intensities, the 76 % sunlight treatment produced the highest growth of total biomass, root, stem, and leaf, indicating negative effects of either fulllight or heavy shading on Ginkgo seedling development. Both flavonols (total flavonol, quercetin, kaempferol, and isorhamnetin) content and expression of flavonoid biosynthesis-related genes [PAL (Phenylalanine ammonia-lyase), CHS (Chalcone synthase), F3H (Flavanone 3-hydroxylase), and FLS (Flavonol synthase)] in leaves were highest under 100 % sunlight, suggesting that full sunlight promotes the expression of flavonoid biosynthesis-related genes and increases flavonoid biosynthesis. The highest and lowest flavonol contents were found in leaves and stems, respectively. The 76 % sunlight treatment produced the highest flavonols yield while the 100 % sunlight produced the highest flavonoids content in leaves, indicating that flavonol production per unit land area depends not only flavonol content but also biomass. Overall, in order to achieve the highest flavonols yield per area in Ginkgo leaf-harvesting plantations, it is important to manipulate light conditions of field.     

Responses of labile soil organic carbon and enzyme activity in mineral soils to forest conversion in the subtropics

Aims

Globally, extensive areas of native forest have been almost replaced by plantations to meet the demands for timber, fuel material and other forest products. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of forest conversion on labile soil organic C (SOC), soil respiration, and enzyme activity, and to quantify their relationship in subtropical forest ecosystems.

Methods

Surface mineral soil (0–20 cm) was collected from a Cunninghamia lanceolata Hook. plantation, Pinus massoniana Lamb. plantation, Michelia macclurei Dandy plantation, and an undisturbed native broadleaf forest. Soil microbial biomass C, dissolved organic C, permanganate-oxidizable C, basal respiration, and six enzyme activities were investigated.

Results

Soil microbial biomass C was higher by 45.9 % in native broadleaf forest than that in M. macclurei Dandy plantation. The ratio of soil microbial biomass C to total SOC was 27.6 % higher in the M. macclurei Dandy plantation than in the native broadleaf forest. The soil respiration increased by 25.2 % and 21.7 % after conversion from native broadleaf forest to P. massoniana Lamb. and M. macclurei Dandy plantations respectively. The effects of forest conversion on the soil enzyme activities differed among the tree species. Soil microbial biomass C had higher correlation with soil respiration than with the other SOC fractions. Moreover, soil microbial biomass C was positively correlated with urease and negatively correlated with cellulase activity. Soil respiration had higher correlation with soil microbial biomass C, dissolved organic C and permanganate-oxidizable C.

Conclusion

Forest conversion affected the soil microbial biomass C, soil respiration, invertase, cellulase, urease, catalase, acid phosphatase, and polyphenol oxidase activities, but their response depended on tree species. Soil respiration was mainly controlled by labile SOC, not by total SOC.     

Biomass production,carbon sequestration and nutrient characteristics of 22-year-old support trees in black pepper (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Piper nigrum</Emphasis>. L) production systems in Kerala,India

Diverse kinds of fast growing multipurpose trees are traditionally grown as support trees (standards) for trailing black pepper vines in the humid tropics of India. Apart from differential black pepper yields, such trees exhibit considerable variability to accumulate biomass, carbon and nutrients. An attempt was made to assess the biomass production, carbon sequestration potential (tree + soil) and nutrient stocks of six multipurpose tree species (age: 22 years) used for trailing black pepper vines (Acacia auriculiformis, Artocarpus heterophyllus, Grevillea robusta, Macaranga peltata, Ailanthus triphysa and Casuarina equisetifolia). Results indicate that G. robusta showed the highest total biomass production (365.72 Mg ha^?1), with A. triphysa having the least value (155.13 Mg ha^?1). Biomass allocation among tissue types followed the order stemwood > roots > branchwood > twigs > leaves. Total C stocks were also highest for G. robusta (169 Mg C ha^?1), followed by A. auriculiformis (155 Mg C ha^?1). Mean annual carbon increment also followed a similar trend. Among the various tissue fractions, stemwood accounted for the highest N, P and K stocks, implying the potential for nutrient export from the site through wood harvest. All the support trees showed significantly higher soil carbon content compared to the treeless control. Soil N, P and K contents were higher under A. auriculiformis than other species. Nitrogen fixation potential, successional stage of the species, stand age and tree management practices such as lopping may modify the biomass allocation patterns and system productivity.     

A generalized algebraic difference approach allows an improved estimation of aboveground biomass dynamics of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cunninghamia lanceolata</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Castanopsis sclerophylla</Emphasis> forests

Key message

A generalized algebraic difference approach (GADA) developed in this study improved the estimation of aboveground biomass dynamics of Cunninghamia lanceolata (Lamb.) Hook and Castanopsis sclerophylla (Lindl.) Schott forests. This could significantly improve the fieldwork efficiency for dynamic biomass estimation without repeated measurements.

Context

The estimation of biomass growth dynamics and stocks is a fundamental requirement for evaluating both the capability and potential of forest carbon sequestration. However, the biomass dynamics of Cunninghamia lanceolata and Castanopsis sclerophylla using the generalized algebraic difference approach (GADA) model has not been made to date.

Aims

This study aimed to quantify aboveground biomass (AGB, including stem, branch and leaf biomass) dynamics and AGB increment in C. lanceolata and C. sclerophylla forests by combining a GADA for diameter prediction with allometric biomass models.

Methods

A total of 12 plots for a C. lanceolata plantation and 11 plots for a C. sclerophylla forest were selected randomly from a 100 m × 100 m systematic grid placed over the study area. GADA model was developed based on tree ring data for each stand.

Results

GADA models performed well for diameter prediction and successfully predicted AGB dynamics for both stands. The mean AGB of the C. lanceolata stand ranged from 69.4 ± 7.7 Mg ha^?1 in 2010 to 102.5 ± 11.4 Mg ha^?1 in 2013, compared to 136.9 ± 7.0 Mg ha^?1 in 2010 to 154.8 ± 8.0 Mg ha^?1 in 2013 for C. sclerophylla. The stem was the main component of AGB stocks and production. Significantly higher production efficiency (stem production/leaf area index) and AGB increment was observed for C. lancolata compared to C. sclerophylla.

Conclusion

Dynamic GADA models could overcome the limitations posed by within-stand competition and limited biometric data, can be applied to study AGB dynamics and AGB increment, and contribute to improving our understanding of net primary production and carbon sequestration dynamics in forest ecosystems.

     

Carbon storage in biomass,litter, and soil of different native and introduced fast-growing tree plantations in the South Caspian Sea

Replantation of degraded forest using rapidgrowth trees can play a significant role in global carbon budget by storing large quantities of carbon in live biomass,forest floor,and soil organic matter.We assessed the potential of 20-year old stands of three rapid-growth tree species,including Alnus subcordata,Populus deltoides and Taxodium distichum,for carbon(C) storage at ecosystem level.In September 2013,48 replicate plots(16 m × 16 m) in 8 stands of three plantations were established.36 trees were felled down and fresh biomass of different components was weighed in the field.Biomass equations were fitted using data based on the 36 felled trees.The biomass of understory vegetation and litter were measured by harvesting all the components.The C fraction of understory,litter,and soil were measured.The ecosystem C storage was as follows: A.subcordata(626.5 Mg ha~(-1)) [ P.deltoides(542.9Mg ha~(-1)) [ T.distichum(486.8 Mg ha~(-1))(P \ 0.001),of which78.1–87.4% was in the soil.P.deltoides plantation reached the highest tree biomass(206.6 Mg ha~(-1)),followed by A.subcordata(134.5 Mg ha~(-1)) and T.distichum(123.3 Mg ha~(-1)).The highest soil C was stored in theplantation of A.subcordata(555.5 Mg ha~(-1)).The C storage and sequestration of the plantations after 20 years were considerable(25–30 Mg ha~(-1) year~(-1)) and broadleaves species had higher potential.Native species had a higher soil C storage while the potential of introduced species for live biomass production was higher.     

Earthworm population and microbial activity temporal dynamics in a Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forest

Few studies have analyzed how tree species within a mixed natural forest affect the dynamics of soil chemical properties and soil biological activity. This study examines seasonal changes in earthworm populations and microbial respiration under several forest species (Carpinus betulus, Ulmus minor, Pterocarya fraxinifolia, Alnus glutinosa, Populus caspica and Quercus castaneifolia) in a temperate mixed forest situated in northern Iran. Soil samplings were taken under six individual tree species (n = 5) in April, June, August and October (a total of 30 trees each month) to examine seasonal variability in soil chemical properties and soil biological activity. Earthworm density/biomass varied seasonally but not significantly between tree species. Maximum values were found in spring (10.04 m^?2/16.06 mg m^?2) and autumn (9.7 m^?2/16.98 mg m^?2) and minimum in the summer (0.43 m^?2/1.26 mg m^?2). Soil microbial respiration did not differ between tree species and showed similar temporal trends in all soils under different tree species. In contrast to earthworm activity, maximum microbial activity was measured in summer (0.44 mg CO₂–C g soil^?1 day^?1) and minimum in winter (0.24 mg CO₂–C g soil^?1 day^?1). This study shows that although tree species affected soil chemical properties (pH, organic C, total N content of mineral soils), earthworm density/biomass and microbial respiration are not affected by tree species but are controlled by tree activity and climate with strong seasonal dynamics in this temperate forest.     

Important properties of bamboo pellets to be used as commercial solid fuel in China

Bamboo is a type of biomass material and has great potential as a bio-energy resource of the future in China. Some properties of bamboo pellets, length, diameter, moisture content (MC), particle density, bulk density, durability, fine content, ash, gross calorific value, combustion rate and heat release rate, were determined and the effects of MC and particle size (PS) on these properties were investigated in this research. The results showed that bamboo pellets will be the proposed new biomass solid fuel and have the potential to be developed as commercial pellets. All properties of bamboo pellets met the requirement of Pellet Fuels Institute Standard Specification for Residential/Commercial Densified Fuel. The gross calorific value of bamboo pellets also met the minimum requirement for making commercial pellets according to DIN 51731 (>17,500 J/g). The effects of MC on length, diameter, MC, particle density and bulk density were significant at p = 0.05. There were no significant differences between PS and all properties of bamboo pellets. Due to higher MC and larger PS, bamboo pellets exhibited higher combustion rates and heat release rates. This research represents an initial stage in the study of bamboo pellets, and its objectives provide guidelines for further research.     

Rooting of Prosopis alba mini-cuttings

Mesquite (Prosopis alba Grisebach), an important species in arid and semiarid regions, is currently commercially propagated by seeds and so there is great interest in developing techniques for species propagation, domestication and improvement. Cloning through mini-cuttings is a new and promising technique for the production of clonal seedlings of forest species. The main objective of this work was to evaluate vegetative propagation using the mini-cutting technique and indolebutyric acid (IBA) at different concentrations (0, 3,000, 4,500, 6,000 and 7,500 mg L^?1) on rooting of P. alba clones. Rooting was achieved in 98–100 % of the mini-cuttings at all concentrations tested. Increasing IBA concentration resulted in an increase in the number of leaves and leaflets, as well as in fresh matter weight and number and length of roots of clone seedlings, until an optimum point (between 3480 and 4800 mg L^?1) was reached. Plants were also vegetatively propagated in the field via conventional clonal garden cuttings under the same rooting conditions to compare the efficiency of the two propagation techniques. Mini-cuttings showed higher rooting and survival percentages than cuttings. A correlation analysis conducted between characteristics of stock plants (height, diameter, number of shoots) and shoots (height, diameter) showed a positive correlation between rooting and height of shoots with total root length, leaflet number, and height of clonal seedlings. We propose the mini-cutting technique as a tool for P. alba cloning.     

Biomass and nutrient allocation to aboveground components in fertilized <Emphasis Type="Italic">Eucalyptus saligna</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">E. urograndis</Emphasis> plantations

The objective of this study was to evaluate biomass allocation and nutrient pools in aboveground biomass components in 18-month-old plantations of Eucalyptus saligna and E. urophylla × E. grandis (i.e. E. urograndis) in Brazil. The plantations were established by pulp companies in a large area comprising three soil types (Acrisols, Vertisols and Leptosols) in the grassland biome in southern Brazil, and an operational regime of planting and maintenance fertilization was used to ensure full availability of nutrients. Vertisols showed the highest availability of soil nutrients, and the P and Ca concentrations in aboveground biomass were also highest in this type of soil. The nutritional status of both species indicates great consumption of nutrients, particularly of P, K and Ca. At this early age, canopy biomass components still made the largest relative contribution, although debarked stem biomass already accounted for 41.5% and 37.4 of total aboveground biomass in E. saligna, and E. urograndis, respectively. Nutrient concentrations in biomass components were similar across species. For all macronutrients, except Ca and Mg, the concentration gradient followed the order wood < bark < branches < leaves. For all micronutrients, except Cu, the concentration gradient followed the order wood < branches ≈ bark < leaves. At the plantation stage studied, i.e. before canopy closure, the importance of the components as nutrient pools followed the order leaves > branches > wood > bark. The branches hold the majority of Ca reserves in biomass and are a very important pool of Mg, K, P and B. The bark makes a small contribution to total biomass, but stores a similar amount of Ca as leaves, being the second major pool after the branches. Comparison of the nutrients supplied by fertilization and the amounts stored in soil and aboveground indicates that the operational dose should be adjusted to each type of soil after further experimental fertilizer trials, as the supply of N and P appears to be too high, particularly for Vertisols. This is leading to the immobilization of P in biomass components that are not of importance in the biological or biochemical nutrient cycles, thus increasing the risk of larger exports of P during biomass removal.     

Allometric equations for estimating aboveground biomass of Coffea arabica L. grown in the Rift Valley escarpment of Ethiopia

Coffee, Coffea arabica L., which is native to Ethiopia, is the world’s most widely traded tropical agricultural commodity. While much is known about the productivity and management of coffee for coffee beans little attention has been given to the plants overall biomass production and carbon sequestration. The objective of this study was to develop and evaluate allometric equations for estimating the aboveground biomass of C. arabica plants growing in indigenous agroforestry system in the Rift Valley escarpment of south-eastern Ethiopia. Coffee plays an important role in providing income and in sustaining these productive systems. Biomass harvesting of 31 plants with 54 stems was carried out in a 40 km² area varying in elevation from 1,500 to 1,900 m. The stem accounted for most (56 %) of plant biomass, followed by branches (39 %) and twigs plus foliage (5 %). Plant mean biomass was 22.9 ± 15.8 kg. Power equations using stem diameter measured at either 40 cm (d ₄₀) or at breast height (d, 1.3 m) with and without stem height (h) were evaluated. The square power equation, $ Y \; = \; b_{ 1} d_{ 40}^{ 2} $ , was found to be the best (highest ranked using goodness-of-fit statistics) for predicting total and component biomass. The reliability of the prediction decreased in the order: stem > branches > twigs plus foliage. A cross-validation procedure showed that equation parameterization was stable and coefficients reliable. Our parameterized square power equation for total aboveground biomass was also found to be better than the equations parameterized by Hairiah et al. (Carbon stocks of tropical land use systems as part of the global C balance: effects of forest conversion and options for clean development activities, International Centre for Research in Agroforestry, Bogor, 2001) and Segura et al. (Agroforest Syst 68:143–150, 2006) for C. arabica grown in agroforestry systems, confirming the importance of parameterization of allometric equations with site specific data when possible.     

Forest Type,Diversity and Biomass Estimation in Tropical Forests of Western Ghat of Maharashtra Using Geospatial Techniques

Tropical forests are the world’s largest terrestrial storehouses of carbon and are recognized as rich, diverse and highly productive ecosystems. The present study was conducted to characterize the land use, diversity and biomass of tropical forest in Western Ghat of Maharashtra State in India through satellite remote sensing and GIS. The study has been designed and implemented to promote analysis on Western Ghat biodiversity resources including trees, shrubs and herbs based on inventorying, monitoring and mapping. Field measured biomass is integrated with spectral responses of various bands and indices of the Landsat TM satellite image for estimation of above-ground biomass in a 36,046 km² area of relic forest in the Central Western Ghat. The above-ground biomass from field-based inventory varied from 30.2 to 151.1 ton/ha in moist deciduous forest, 9.2–99.1 ton/ha in dry deciduous forest, 42.1–158.6 ton/ha in semi-evergreen forest, and 160.9–271 ton/ha in evergreen forest. The total above-ground biomass of the study area was estimated to be 95.2 M tons. A regression equation between field above-ground biomass and a Normalized Difference Vegetation Index was used for spectral modeling to estimate and prepare the above-ground biomass map in the region. A total 120 plant species in 81 genera and 31 families were identified in the study area. This study emphasizes the importance of relic forests for their biodiversity, carbon sequestration and total biomass.     

The contribution of agroforestry to world forestry development

Agroforestry with its outstanding variety of systems and technologies has been practiced in all parts of the world since times immemorial. Its worldwide recognition, scientific promotion and application in rural development strategies in the tropics, however, ‘exploded’ with two events: the foundation of the International Council for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF), 1977 and the Eighth World Forestry Conference in Jakarta, 1978. This is important to be recalled at the occasion of the Ninth World Forestry Congress to be held in Mexico this year. Agroforestry's holistic approach to solving land use problems under prevailing conditions and constraints of different humid, semiarid and mountainous regions has gained importance and produced first remarkable results with regard to increasing the human-ecological carrying capacity. Forestry is gaining from the newly promoted strategies of integrated land use in various ways: less pressure on forest resources and thus less destruction of forest vegetation, additional lands for wood production outside the forest estate, cooperation instead of confrontation with other target groups, and an expanded multiple-use concept increasing the value of marginal forest lands. Agriculture and livestock management are improved by various environmental benefits of the forest component and by the availability of forest products within agroforestry systems. First achievements over the past seven years have been encouraging in many instances. Much more, however, remains to be done in future.     

When host-plant resistance to a pest leads to higher plant damage

The effects of the association between grasses and fungal endophytes on orthopterans are very poorly studied although they are important grassland pests. Here, the endemic New Zealand weta, Hemiandrus sp. ‘promontorius’, and Festulolium loliaceum infected with Epichloë uncinata, were used to study the effect of endophyte-mediated resistance in grasses on this large orthopteran insect in the laboratory, and the effects of this interaction on the grass. The insect was presented with F. loliaceum with and without E. uncinata infection in no-choice and paired choice experiments. Other controls were Epichloë festucae-infected Festuca rubra and endophyte-free Lolium perenne. In no-choice experiments, persistent attempts by the insect to graze the endophyte-infected grasses (but promptly abandoning them) resulted in a significantly higher number of plants lost due to excision at their stems after the first bite (P = 0.004). The inability of affected grasses to compensate for the lost biomass resulted in a lack of significant difference between the dry biomass of endophyte-infected and endophyte-free controls (P = 0.206). However, in choice experiments, there was a preference for the endophyte-free controls when they were paired with the endophyte-infected grasses (P < 0.05). The current work shows that endophyte-infected grasses can sustain high plant losses when attacked by an orthopteran insect in the absence of an alternative food source. This contrasts other endophyte/herbivory experiments in which high herbivory occurs because chemical plant defences are at a low concentration or the endophytes have other non-toxin roles in the plant.     

Communities of saprobic fungi on leaf litter of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Vismia guianensis</Emphasis> in remnants of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest

We examined the mycobiota associated with Vismia guianensis leaf litter in three Atlantic Forest remnants of Brazil’s semiarid region. Among the study sites, two remnants were protected forest reserves, whereas the third was influenced by major anthropogenic activities. Eighteen litter samples were collected in wet and dry seasons and were processed by particle filtration technique. A total of 4750 fungal isolates of 142 taxa were identified. Species richness was higher in litter samples collected during wet season. Nonmetric multidimensional scaling multivariate analysis showed differences in the composition of fungal communities among the sampling sites and the seasons. Analysis of similarity showed that the differences were statistically significant (R = 0.85; P = 0.0001). Our findings revealed that spatial and temporal heterogeneity, and human activities had significant impacts on the saprobic fungi of V. guianensis leaf litter.     

Planted Forest and Diverse Cultures in Ecological Village Planning: A Case Study in Tarama Island,Okinawa Prefecture,Japan

Traditional village landscapes that were planned with a combination of local traditional beliefs and the Feng Shui concepts of ‘ho:go’, featured in remaining patches of flourishing planted forest on Ryukyu Islands, were estimated to have been built about 300 years ago. This study sought to clarify the actual landscape composition and map the layout and distribution of landscape elements, with a focus on understanding the dimension of the widespread Feng Shui woods. The cultural landscape combines shapes of patches of greening, corridors of planted forest belts and intersecting roads, scattered areas of water and clustered human settlements. On the relatively flat islands, a forest belt about 15 m wide was planted to curve in front of the village and be connected with the preserved natural forest on the low hills behind the settlements to shape a green protective circle with a radius of about 400 m. The grounds of each house were surrounded by one row of trees. Thousands of big Fukugi trees were found surrounding the settlements and sacred sites. These forest belts are almost completely connected and shape green corridors providing habitat for flora and fauna. Inside the village, roads have been designed to meander, and thus function to mitigate damage from strong winds. In Okinawa, utaki (sacred places dedicated to a guardian deity of hamlets) and the remains of old springs also consist of important landscape units. Such a traditional aesthetic village landscape embodies the harmony of man and nature, or ‘people living in the forests’. A cultural landscape with ecological context needs to be reevaluated as a rural planning style in island topography, and promoted as a tourist attraction in order to better conserve it.     

Inoculation of ectomycorrhizal fungi contributes to the survival of tree seedlings in a copper mine tailing

To advance our understanding of the effects of inoculation with ectomycorrhizal fungi (EMF) on seedling colonization in mine wastelands, we conducted a field experiment in a copper tailing. Six-month-old seedlings of Japanese red pine (Pinus densiflora) and oak (Quercus variabilis) separately inoculated with three EMF species (Pisolithus sp., Cenococcum geophilum, Laccaria laccata) were transplanted to the copper tailing. The survival rates of tree seedlings were monitored monthly, and growth (biomass and height), contents of nutrients and heavy metals (K, P, Ca, Mg, Cu, Zn), and mycorrhizal infection rates of seedlings were determined 6 months after planting. Oak seedlings exhibited higher survival rates than pine seedlings after 6 months of growth on the tailing. EMF inoculations of pine seedlings significantly enhanced their survival, growth, and nutrient uptake. In contrast, EMF inoculations of oak seedlings improved growth only in terms of biomass. Additionally, EMF inoculation caused pine seedlings to accumulate more Cu and Zn in roots compared to non-inoculated seedlings, whereas inoculation inhibited the accumulation of heavy metals in shoots. However, similar results were not observed in oak seedlings. Observations of roots indicated that the rates of mycorrhizal infection of both tree species had dramatically declined at harvest time. In conclusion, ectomycorrhizal symbioses can improve the survival and performance of pine seedlings in mine tailings. The present study provided direct evidence of the importance of EMF inoculation of seedlings to the reforestation of mine wastelands.