Comparison of flower color with anthocyanin composition patterns in evergreen azalea

In evergreen azaleas, major anthocyanins were detected from petals of wild species and cultivars by HPLC analysis. Depending on flower color, all samples were divided into three groups: red, purple or white, using the Japan color standard for horticultural plants. The chromatic components a* and b* values of red group samples showed a convergent distribution, whereas those of purple group samples showed a wider distribution. According to the HPLC analysis, red group samples had two to four major anthocyanins, and those of the purple group had two to six major ones. In contrast, no anthocyanins were detected in the white group petals, although anthocyanidins were detected. These results suggest that the anthocyanin constitution of the purple group flowers is more varied than that of the red group flowers, and this wider variety among purple flowers contributes to extending the diversity of flower color in evergreen azalea.     

金桂及其芽变花色表型及色素成分分析

以金桂及其芽变花为试验材料,利用英国皇家园艺学会比色卡(Royal Horticultural Society Color Chart,R.H.S.C.C.)和色差仪测量两种花的颜色表型,通过显色法和紫外—分光光度计初步确定了两种花的主要色素类型,并且利用高效液相色谱—光电二极管阵列(HPLC–DAD)测定花瓣中类胡萝卜素和总黄酮含量,利用高效液相色谱—大气压化学电离源—质谱联用技术(HPLC–APCI–MS)和标准品鉴定主要类胡萝卜素成分。结果发现,芽变枝条上的花色由母本的黄色(R.H.S.C.C.12B~13A)变为橙红色,且花瓣边缘和内部颜色不同(内侧R.H.S.C.C.23B,花瓣外缘R.H.S.C.C.N25A);两种花瓣中均含黄酮类化合物,不含花青素苷,且两者的类胡萝卜素含量存在一定差异;从两种花瓣中分离鉴定出主要的类胡萝卜素成分为α–胡萝卜素和β–胡萝卜素,这两种组分和类胡萝卜素总量在芽变花瓣中极显著高于母本,而两种花瓣的总黄酮含量无显著性差异。因此,最终可以确定引起芽变花色变化的主要色素成分为类胡萝卜素。     

风信子花瓣花色苷组成分析

以12个风信子(Hyacinthus orientalis L.)品种为研究材料,采用英国皇家园艺学会比色卡进行花色描述,利用特征颜色反应确定色素类型,利用UPLC-PAD结合UPLC-Q-TOF-MS技术分析花色苷种类及含量。结果表明,12个品种花瓣中均不含有色的类胡萝卜素,除‘City of Haarlem’和‘Aiolos’以外,均含花色苷。10个含花色苷的品种中,‘Woodstock’花瓣中花色苷含量最高,‘Jan Bos’、‘上农早粉’、‘上农紫红’次之。在这些品种花瓣中共检测到9种花色苷成分,通过与已有文献比对,推定其成分为:天竺葵素3–O–葡萄糖苷、天竺葵素3–O–葡萄糖苷5–O–丙二酰葡萄糖苷、矢车菊素3–O–香豆酰葡萄糖苷–5–O–葡萄糖苷、天竺葵素3–O–香豆酰葡萄糖苷–5–O–葡萄糖苷、天竺葵素3–O–香豆酰葡萄糖苷–5–O–乙酰葡萄糖苷、矢车菊素3–O–香豆酰葡萄糖苷–5–O–丙二酰葡萄糖苷、天竺葵素3–O–香豆酰葡萄糖苷–5–O–丙二酰葡萄糖苷、天竺葵素3–O–阿魏酰葡萄糖苷–5–O–丙二酰葡萄糖苷和天竺葵素3–O–咖啡酰葡萄糖苷–5–O–丙二酰葡萄糖苷。‘上农早粉’、‘上农中粉’、‘Gipsy Queen’、‘Marconi’等品种花瓣中仅含天竺葵素花色苷衍生物,其它6个品种则含天竺葵素和矢车菊素的花色苷衍生物,以天竺葵素为主。‘上农早粉’、‘上农中粉’、‘Gipsy Queen’、‘Jan Bos’、‘Marconi’和‘Lady Derby’花瓣花色苷以天竺葵素3–O–香豆酰葡萄糖苷–5–O–丙二酰葡萄糖苷为主;‘Anna Lisa’、‘Woodstock’花瓣花色苷以天竺葵素3–O–香豆酰葡萄糖苷–5–O–乙酰葡萄糖苷为主;‘上农紫红’和‘Sky Line’花瓣花色苷分别以矢车菊素3–O–香豆酰葡萄糖苷–5–O–丙二酰葡萄糖苷以及天竺葵素3–O–香豆酰葡萄糖苷–5–O–葡萄糖苷为主。     

观赏海棠新品种‘昌辉’

‘昌辉’是采用自然杂交方法培育的观赏海棠新品种,大花重瓣,花量较少,浅杯形,红紫色,花期4月上旬至5月上旬。适应性和观赏性强,可在园林中推广应用。     

Effect of temperature,daylength and light intensity on growth and development of Dipladenia sanderi Hemsl. ‘Rosea’

Dipladenia sanderi Hemsl. ‘Rosea’ (syn.: Mandevilla sanderi (Hemsl.) Woodson ‘Rosea’) was grown in a glasshouse at 12, 15, 18 and 21°C, daylengths of 8 or 20 h, natural daylight, and natural daylight supplemented with cool-white fluorescent lamps (10 W m^?2).Time from propagation to unfolded flower decreased with increasing temperature, and at 12°C there were relatively few flowers in the inflorescences. The time to flower opening was not influenced by daylength, but with 20 h there were more buds in the first developed inflorescence and the petals were larger than with 8 h. In addition, the vegetative growth was favoured by 20 h. Supplementary lighting shortened the developmental time to unfolded flower, but the flowers were smaller than in natural light only.The growth and development varied according to the time of year. Dipladenia was able to bloom all year round, except in January and February. The low light intensity in November and December probably made it impossible for the buds to develop into flowers in January and February.     

Induction of viable 2n pollen in sterile Oriental × Trumpet Lilium hybrids

In order to induce viable 2n pollen from highly sterile diploid Oriental × Trumpet (OT) (Lilium), N₂O was used to treat flower buds of four sterile diploid OT cultivars (‘Nymph’, ‘Gluhwein’, ‘Yelloween’, and ‘Shocking’) at different stages of meiosis. There was no pollen germination in the controls. However, after N₂O treatment at 600 kPa, three of the OT hybrids (‘Nymph’, ‘Gluhwein’, and ‘Yelloween’) not only exhibited fertile flower percentages (4.3–16%), but also higher rates of pollen germination (18.8–72.5%). In addition, both the fertile flower percentages and rates of pollen germination were higher following 48 h N₂O treatment at 600 kPa than the 24 h treatment. Following 72 h N₂O treatment at 600 kPa, most flower buds or plants were damaged and any undamaged flowers showed abnormal anthers at the time of flowering. This indicated that 48 h of N₂O treatment at 600 kPa was optimal to induce viable 2n pollen in three out of four sterile hybrid OT lily cultivars. These results also showed that prophase I – metaphase I was the optimum stage of meiosis at which to induce 2n pollen by N₂O treatment in lily hybrids.     

Analysis of light and sucrose potencies on petal coloration and pigmentation of lisianthus cultivars (in vitro)

To understand how the synthesis of petal pigments is influenced by light and sucrose, a cut flower culture was carried out with and without sucrose in the medium using different cultivars of lisianthus (Eustoma grandiflorum Grise.). At low light intensity, lightness (L¹) increased and chroma (C¹) decreased. In the presence of sucrose, lightness (L¹) decreased and chroma (C¹) increased. Light intensity and sucrose exerted significant influences on the percentage distribution of different anthocyanidins and total anthocyanin in lisianthus flower petals. Flowers from detached buds cultured in sucrose containing media showed a significant increase in anthocyanin concentration in all the cultivars; ‘Asuka no Asa’, ‘Mickey Rose’ and ‘Asuka no Kurenai’ at a light intensity of 1400 to 2100 lx. Furthermore, more anthocyanin was produced in the sucrose media. The amount of anthocyanin in the petals increased gradually with the lengthening of the photoperiod, whereas flavonol content showed no significant variation in response to light intensity or photoperiod. We found that the lightness, chroma and petal color of the flowers were influenced by sucrose and light intensity through a change in total anthocyanin concentration in petals. The variation in flower color caused by light and sucrose, determined on the basis of CIELAB color diagram, provides for a more accurate color notation in lisianthus.     

Production of intraspecific hybrids between wild-type and petaloid-sepal cultivars in Habenaria radiata

Orchids are commercially important plants with flowers that are unique and very specialized in shape and color. The flowers consist mostly of sepals, lateral petals, lip (labellum) and column, and are zygomorphic and resupinate. Whereas most orchid species have petaloid tepals in the first and second whorls, Habenaria radiata has a flower with greenish sepals and white lateral petals and lip. ‘Hishou’, one of the cultivars of H. radiata, is a floral homeotic mutant and has a petaloid median sepal and lip-like lateral sepals in the first whorl. Additionally, this cultivar often has non-resupinate flowers whereas wild-type H. radiata flowers are resupinate. In the present study, we investigated the genetic inheritance of these characters in the ‘Hishou’ cultivar by crossing it with wild-type plants. Some intraspecific hybrids, which were confirmed by PCR-RFLP analysis, had flowers with a petaloid median sepal and lip-like lateral sepals in the first whorl, indicating that these were dominant characters. Since the remainder of the intraspecific hybrids had wild-type flowers, these characters must be heterozygous in ‘Hishou’ plants. Although ‘Hishou’ plants had non-resupinate flowers, intraspecific hybrid flowers were resupinate, even though they had the petaloid median sepal and lip-like lateral sepals. This result indicates that non-resupination must be a recessive character. Since sepal-petalization and triple lip characters of ‘Hishou’ inherited dominantly, these characters can be utilized for the breeding of Habenaria species by intra- and interspecific crosses.     

Influence of almond × peach hybrids rootstocks on flower and leaf mineral concentration,yield and vigour of two peach cultivars

Flower and foliar nutrient content of ‘Queen Giant’ and ‘Tebana’ peach [Prunus persica (L.) Batsch] on six almond × peach hybrids rootstocks (‘Adafuel’, ‘Adarcias’, ‘GF 677’, ‘Cadaman’, ‘Garnem’ and ‘Felinem’) were determined during one season. The mineral elements analysed were: N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, Zn, Na and Cu. Leaf N concentration in ‘Queen Giant’ was the highest on ‘Cadaman’ and ‘GF 677’ and the lowest on ‘Adarcias’. The P, Fe and Zn concentrations in flowers and leaves were significantly correlated. The leaf chlorophyll concentration at 120 DAFB was positively correlated with Fe floral concentration and with K, Zn and Na leaf concentration, in ‘Queen Giant’, and with K and Mn leaf concentration, in ‘Tebana’. In ‘Queen Giant’, the greatest trunk cross-sectional area was exhibited with ‘Felinem’ and ‘Garnem’ and the lowest with ‘Adarcias’. In contrast, the greater yield efficiency was found on ‘Adarcias’. In ‘Queen Giant’, a negative correlation was found between yield efficiency and Ca in leaves and in flowers. A positive correlation was observed between tree vigour and flower Fe, flower Ca and leaf Ca concentration. Correlation was also found between yield efficiency and Mg in ‘Tebana’ flowers. In ‘Queen Giant’, ‘Felinem’ rootstock showed the weakest balanced nutritional values (ΣDOP index) compared with other rootstocks.     

花青苷成分对瓜叶菊花色的影响

 通过测定不同花色瓜叶菊舌状花花色表型和定性定量分析其花青苷成分组成, 探讨不同瓜叶 菊花色表型与其所含花青素类色素类型之间的关系。采用分光色差计(NF333) 测量了不同花色的色相值。用高效液相色谱-光电二极管阵列检测技术(HPLC - PAD) 和高效液相色谱-电喷雾离子化-质谱联用技术(HPLC - ESI - MS) 分析花瓣中花青苷和黄酮醇的组成及含量。分析表明: 花色表型中亮度和花青苷总量之间存在线性负相关。蓝色和红色瓜叶菊花色分别由飞燕草素苷元(Dp) 和矢车菊素苷元(Cy) 为核心的花青苷决定。粉色瓜叶菊含有Cy和天竺葵素苷元( Pg) 为核心的花青苷。紫色瓜叶菊主要含有Dp和Cy为核心的花青苷。瓜叶菊花色亮度与花青苷含量负相关, 瓜叶菊花红色程度和Cy为核心的花青苷含量正相关。瓜叶菊主要由花青素决定其呈色。     

大花三色堇新品种‘冰紫’、‘猫咪’和‘微笑’

大花三色堇‘冰紫'花为淡紫色,侧瓣和唇瓣基部透白晕,嵌深紫条纹;‘猫咪'花为黄色,侧瓣及唇瓣基部有深褐色条纹;‘微笑'花为深紫色,侧瓣及唇瓣基部有白色斑块,嵌深紫色斑纹。播种后95~120 d开花,属早花品种;花量大,单株可同时盛开20余朵花;花期最长可达6个月,末花期延至夏初,耐热性好;适用于花坛及盆栽。     

观赏文冠果新品种‘森淼重瓣冠’

‘森淼重瓣冠’是从文冠果的实生变异单株中选出的观赏型新品种。树势强健,发枝力强;总状花序,每花序20~30朵重瓣无性花,每朵小花约30个花瓣,花瓣白色;外层花瓣较大为倒卵形,逐层变小,内层花瓣长条形;不结实。     

Analysis of petal anthocyanins to investigate coloration mechanism in herbaceous peony cultivars

Petal coloration and anthocyanin compositions of 41 herbaceous peony cultivars were analyzed. Anthocyanins were identified by high-performance liquid chromatography–electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry (HPLC–ESI-MSⁿ) coupled with photodiode array detection (DAD). Peonidin-3,5-di-O-glucoside (Pn3G5G), pelargonidin-3,5-di-O-glucoside (Pg3G5G), cyanidin-3,5-di-O-glucoside (Cy3G5G), peonidin-3-O-glucoside (Pn3G), and cyanidin-3-O-glucoside (Cy3G) were the five major anthocyanins in herbaceous peony cultivars. Deep purple or reddish purple cultivars contained 4–5 anthocyanins, whereas pink cultivars only contained Cy3G5G and Pn3G5G, and their contents were much lower than those of purple cultivars. According to the chemical structures of three anthocyanidins in association with petal coloration, flowers were classified into three phenotypes: 1. “Pn, Cy, and Pg” (all purple flowers including two pink flowers); 2. “Pn, Cy” (pink flowers); 3 “Pn” (light pink and white flowers). The coloration mechanisms of cultivars with the pink and purple flowers were quite different. Correlations between lightness (L*) and chroma (C*), chromatic component a* and total anthocyanins (TA) value, a* and co-pigmentation index (CI) showed opposite tendencies, whereas L* and TA showed the same tendency in each group. High contents of Pn3G5G and Pg3G5G may responsible for the purple coloration of herbaceous peony cultivars.     

报春苣苔属杂交新品种‘花苹果’、‘猫的花环’、‘小喇叭’

报春苣苔属杂交品种‘花苹果’（‘Piebald Apple’）是从‘紫苹果’（‘Lavender Apple’）× 硬叶报春苣苔（P. sclerophylla）,‘猫的花环’（‘Cat’s Garland’）是从永福报春苣苔（P. yungfuensis）× 阳朔小花苣苔（P. glandulosa var. yangshuoensis）,‘小喇叭’（‘Dan’s Trumpet’）是从条叶报春苣苔（P. ophiopogoides）× 齿苞报春苣苔（P. beiliuensis var. fimbribracteata）杂交后代中选育出的新品种,开花量大,花梗直立,栽培适应性好,花为分别为薰衣草紫色、粉白色和蓝紫色。     

Effects of high temperature on flower colour and anthocyanin content in pink flower genotypes of greenhouse chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat.)

Summary

The relationship between the intensity of flower colour and changes in the content of the main anthocyanins under various controlled temperatures was examined in order to clarify the effects of high temperature on flower colouration in six pink flower genotypes of greenhouse chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat.). Poor colouration of flowers was observed at 30°C in all genotypes except ‘Chatoo’. This genotype showed little difference in flower colour between different temperature treatments. The degree of change in flower colour differed depending on the genotype, whereas no clear differences in flower colouring were observed between Summer – Autumn flowering and Autumn-flowering genotypes. All genotypes showed lower contents of the two anthocyanins tested [cyanidin 3-O-(6’’-O-monomalonyl- -glucopyranoside) and cyanidin 3-O-(3’’,6’’-O-dimalonyl- -glucopyranoside)] at higher temperatures. Therefore, flower colour changes were attributable to changes in these two main anthocyanins. Differences in colouration between genotypes and temperature conditions were also detectable in values that were measured using a colorimeter. Changed parameters that were visually verifiable were the a* value, representing the degree of red colour, and the C* value, representing chroma. For ‘Sei-Monako’, which showed visually greater differences between temperature treatments, the a* and C* values were low under high temperature conditions. On the other hand, in ‘Chatoo’, the differences detected by eye and those in a* and C* values between temperature treatments were small. In addition, the present results indicate that mean temperature is more important than either day or night temperature in determining the degree of flower colouration.     

Improvement of flower color by means of leaf treatments in lily

Flower color, an important feature biologically and commercially, is based on four natural pigments – flavonoids, carotenoids, betalains and chlorophylls. Temperature, light, nutrition – as well as additions of sugar, salt, or metals to the conservation water – have an effect on pigmentation. We investigated the effects of K-sulphate and/or sucrose on flower color in leaf treatments applied 30–10 days before harvest to four Asiatic lily (Lilium × elegans Thunb.) cultivars during the winter and summer. Colors of tepals were evaluated by a portable spectrocolorimeter that calculates the standard CIE L*a*b* coordinates and the color differences (E). After leaf treatments during both seasons, cultivars with flowers with high red components (e.g. the purple ‘Fangio’ and the pink ‘Brindisi’) showed significant improvements in color quality. The orange-flowered ‘Tresor’ showed improvement only if K-sulphate and Mix (K-sulphate and sucrose) solution treatments were applied during the summer. The yellow-flowered ‘Menorca’ was not affected by treatments during either summer or winter forcing season. Especially in the winter, a significant reduction in flower abortion was observed for cut flowers of all cultivars. In summer only ‘Fangio’ and ‘Tresor’ showed a reduction in flower abortion. Also, flower size and longevity were improved by the leaf treatment. The results, obtained from a commercial nursery operation, demonstrate that lily growers can adopt a very simple and inexpensive treatment to improve important qualitative traits of their product.     

Initiation and development of pistillate flowers in Actinidia chinensis

Initiation and development of pistillate flowers in Actinidia chinensis Planch, cultivar ‘Hayward’ (kiwifruit, Chinese gooseberry) was followed using light and scanning electron microscopy. Results indicate that dormant buds contain undifferentiated primordia in the leaf axils. These primordia remain undifferentiated until shortly before bud break, approximately two months before full bloom, when the primordia become trilobed as bracts and lateral flower primordia are initiated. The lateral flowers often abort in this cultivar. Acropetal development of the terminal flower proceeds rapidly. Five to seven sepals are initiated, followed by a whorl of five to seven petals. Stamen initiation is centripetal and the anthers develop to produce inviable pollen. The central portion of the floral apex is converted into a large compound pistil with numerous hollow styles, each terminated by an open stigma.     

Comparative analysis of floral pigmentation between wild-type and white-flowered varieties of Cyclamen graecum

Summary

The flower colour of Cyclamen graecum gra6 (wild-type) is pink-purple in the main part of the petal, referred to as the ‘slip’, and deep purple at the petal base, referred to as the ‘eye’. On the other hand, flowers of C. graecum gra50 (a white-flowered variant) exhibit a white colour in both the ‘slip’ and ‘eye’ regions. In this study, the relationship between floral pigmentation and the expression of several anthocyanin biosynthesis genes was investigated in C. graecum gra6 and gra50. The pigments in the ‘slip’ and ‘eye’ regions consist mainly of malvidin 3,5-diglucoside in gra6, suggesting that the difference between the colour of the ‘slip’ and ‘eye’ regions is related to the amount of anthocyanin present. White-flowered C. graecum gra50 possessed lower amounts of anthocyanins, but higher amounts of flavonols compared to gra6, suggesting a change in metabolism caused by a disruption of anthocyanin biosynthesis. Gene expression analysis demonstrated that expression of the dihydroflavonol 4-reductase gene 2 (CgraDFR2) was lower in gra50 compared with gra6, whereas expression of the three other key genes (dihydroflavonol 4-reductase gene 1, flavonoid 3’,5’-hydroxylase, and anthocyanidin synthase) did not differ greatly. These results suggest that the white-flowered variant (gra50) may result from a defect in expression of the CgraDFR2 gene.     

切花月季失水胁迫耐性差异与内肽酶活性的关联

 选用切花月季耐失水胁迫品种‘Samantha’和中度耐失水胁迫品种‘Belami’, 采用带枝花和离枝花两种形式, 在22～25℃、RH 30%～50%、80μE·m ^{- 2} ·s^{- 1}荧光灯照光条件下进行了0～60 h的失水胁迫处理。结果显示: ①失水胁迫中花枝弯颈率的增加, ‘Samantha’快于‘Belami’, 同一品种带枝花快于离枝花, 但复水后恢复率的降低前者慢于后者, 同一品种带枝花慢于离枝花。胁迫过程中, 带枝花、离枝花都出现了恢复率快速降低的拐点, 前者晚于后者。对应于花枝复水恢复率快速降低的拐点, 水势值同一品种的带枝花、离枝花基本相同。②两品种花瓣中游离氨基酸含量均是带枝花、离枝花快速上升的转折点与其相应的复水率迅速降低拐点相吻合。③胁迫诱导的花瓣内肽酶活性上升, ‘Samantha’明显晚于‘Belami’, 同一品种带枝花早于离枝花。两品种带枝花和离枝花花瓣内肽酶活性诱导上升的转折点与其相应的复水恢复率迅速降低拐点相一致。④胁迫诱导引起的花瓣中金属蛋白酶和丝氨酸蛋白酶活性的变化均是‘Samantha’显著低于‘Belami’。由此推测, 切花月季品种间失水胁迫耐性差异可能与胁迫对花瓣中金属蛋白酶和丝氨酸蛋白酶活性诱导的差异有关。     

川乌头F3′5′H基因的cDNA克隆与表达分析

利用RT-PCR结合RACE技术,从川乌头(Aconitum carmichaeli Debx.)花朵中克隆到1个类黄酮-3′,5′-羟基化酶基因的cDNA全长序列,全长1720bp,包含1个编码506个氨基酸的开放阅读框,命名为Ac-F3′5′H(GenBank登录号:JN635708)。序列分析表明Ac-F3′5′H编码的氨基酸序列中包含有已确定的保守基序,包括CYP基序、I螺旋区和血红素结合区等。氨基酸序列比对显示Ac-F3′5′H与其它物种的F3′5′H有很高的序列相似性。以川乌头18SrRNA基因(FJ748878)为内参,通过半定量RT-PCR对Ac-F3′5′H的时空表达模式进行了分析,结果显示Ac-F3′5′H随花朵发育,表达量呈递增趋势,并且在正在开放的花朵中达到最高,而在根、茎、叶中不表达,推测该基因可能在调节川乌头蓝色花朵形成中发挥作用。