Biology,impact, and management of Echinochloa colona (L.) Link

Echinochloa colona (L.) Link. is one of the most problematic weeds across the world. It is an annual C₄ summer grass, native to tropical and subtropical Asia, emerged as a serious and persistent threat in 35 cropping systems in more than 60 countries. E. colona is reported as an important associated weed species in transplanted and direct-seeded rice. Diverse ecotypes, high seed production, short seed dormancy, rapid growth, competitive potential, allelopathic interaction, and resistance against several herbicides makes it a more adaptable and persistent challenge in various agro-ecosystems. Development of resistance to recommended or higher doses of numerous herbicides, including ametryn, atrazine, bispyribac-sodium, clefoxidym, cyhalofop-butyl, fenoxaprop-p-ethyl, glyphosate, metribuzin, propanil, and triazine, is a serious concern for the farming and scientific community. Crop infestation with resistant E. colona biotypes may ultimately increase the weed control cost. Unfortunately, investigations on seed dormancy release, genetic diversity, allelopathic interference, and competitive ability of this weed are inadequate in accomplishing its appropriate control in different environments. Therefore, a comprehensive review is presented here to gather the existing information, to pin point key findings, and to highlight the research gaps in the biology, interference, and management of E. colona. Different management options have been discussed in relation with eco-biology of this noxious weed. The potential research endeavours have also been highlighted in order to provide an insight of its existing scenario and to facilitate the future management strategies.     

A bioplastic-based seed coating improves seedling growth and reduces production of coated seed dust

Although recently introduced, film-coating of agronomic seeds is now widely accepted in modern agriculture as an effective technology for protecting germinating seeds and seedlings. These experiments explored the possibility of using a bioplastic-based formulation to film-coat corn (maize; Zea mays L.) and canola (Brassica napus L.) seeds, alone and in combination with synthetic pesticides and plant growth-promoting bacteria. The thin bioplastic coat did not affect percent germination or seedling growth. However, incorporating spores of the plant growth-promoting bacterium Bacillus subtilis QST 713 into the bioplastic matrix resulted in a greater elongation of corn and canola seedlings than that of seedlings from untreated seeds. Specifically, stems and roots of seedlings that germinated from corn seeds coated with bioplastic containing spores were 18.0% and 21.4% longer, respectively, than stems and roots from uncoated control seeds. In canola seeds, these values were 19.9% and 20.9% higher for stem and roots, respectively. Incorporating a neonicotinoid insecticide, imidacloprid, and a fungicide, pyraclostrobin, into bioplastic coatings, along with B. subtilis spores, provided results comparable to spores and bioplastic alone. Coated seeds were also evaluated for their potential to generate dust after abrasion testing, using a novel image-based method made possible because seed coatings are typically artificially colored. Abraded seed coat fragments are consequently easily detectable with conventional optical instruments. Corn and canola seeds coated with bioplastic released up to 86.1% and 97.6% less dust during abrasive handling than seeds coated with a commercial seed coating matrix measured by the optical approach described here.     

Effect of emergence time,inter- and intra-specific competition on growth and fecundity of Echinochloa crus-galli in dry-seeded rice

Since 2005, the evolution and spread of herbicide-resistant Echinochloa crus-galli biotypes have posed a serious threat to crop production in the Philippines. A comprehensive knowledge of E. crus-galli ecology and fecundity is fundamental in managing different biotypes of this weed. It was hypothesized that (a) high weed plant density produces more biomass and fertile seeds per unit area, (b) rice interference reduces the biomass and fecundity of the weed, and (c) a delay in weed emergence reduces the soil seed bank. In 2013, experiments were conducted in the wet season (WS) and dry season (DS), to understand the effect of E. crus-galli densities (40 and 80 plants m⁻²) on its growth, survival, and fecundity, with varying emergence times of 2, 15, 30, and 45 d after rice emergence (DARE). Relative to the weed plants grown without rice interference, E. crus-galli growth and seed production was lower in the presence of rice. Percent survival and plant height of E. crus-galli declined in a linear manner in the DS, and declined in a quadratic manner in the WS. Tiller number, inflorescence number, inflorescence biomass, and shoot biomass per plant declined in an exponential manner, with a delay in emergence of each cohort relative to rice. Across rice seeding rate, weed density, and emergence time, there was a linear relationship (y = 110x − 272 in the DS and y = 100x − 220 in the WS) between E. crus-galli shoot biomass and the number of seeds plant⁻¹. Relative to the late-emerging weed cohorts, E. crus-galli seed production (1320–1579 seeds plant⁻¹), 1000-seed weight (2.2–2.9 g), and seed yield (2808–2334 kg ha⁻¹) were higher when seedlings emerged with the crop (2 DARE). None of the seedlings that emerged 45 DARE produced viable seeds. Seed germination of the first two cohorts (2 and 15 DARE) ranged from 84 to 91%. The delay in emergence of E. crus-galli beyond 30 DARE reduced the percentage of germinable and viable seeds, and increased the percentage of non-viable seeds produced plant⁻¹. The results suggest that cultural weed management approaches that delay the emergence of E. crus-galli can reduce weed biomass and seed production, and is thus valuable for preventing seed rain to the seed bank by noxious weed biotypes in the field.     

Effects of water regime,nitrogen fertilization,and rice plant density on growth and reproduction of lowland weed Echinochloa crus-galli

Direct-seeded rice systems are increasing in Asia as farmers respond to the high labor cost and shortage of water. Echinochloa crus-galli is one of the most problematic and competitive weeds in direct-seeded rice systems. Because of concerns about excessive herbicide use, there is an interest in developing cultural weed management strategies. However, the design of such strategies requires a better understanding of the weed response to crop density, nutrition, and water regime. A study was therefore conducted in pots to determine the effect of water (flooded and aerobic), nitrogen (N) fertilization (0, 100, and 200 kg N ha⁻¹), and rice density [0, 4 rice plants (≈20 kg seed ha⁻¹), and 16 rice plants (≈80 kg seed ha⁻¹)] on the growth and reproduction of E. crus-galli. When grown alone, the growth and seed production of E. crus-galli were higher in flooded conditions than in aerobic conditions. However, no such differences were observed when E. crus-galli was grown with rice interference. E. crus-galli growth and seed production increased with increases in N rate. Irrespective of water regime and N rate, the growth and seed production of E. crus-galli declined with increases in rice density. At 100 kg N ha⁻¹, for example, E. crus-galli shoot biomass and seed production decreased by 84–86% and 82–87%, respectively, when grown with 16 rice plants compared with its growth without rice interference. The results suggest that growth and seed production of E. crus-galli can be greatly reduced by increasing rice seeding rate. However, there is a need to involve other weed management strategies to achieve complete control of E. crus-galli and other weed species.     

抗草潜力不同的水稻品种混合种植对稗草的抑制作用

以秀水63（化感指数为0.24,竞争力弱）、PI312777（化感指数为0.61,竞争力强）、国稻1号（化感指数为0.55,竞争力强）为材料,采用盆栽试验和田间试验相结合的方法,研究了抗草潜力不同的水稻品种混种对稗草萌发和生长的影响。盆栽试验结果表明,PI312777和国稻1号对稗草萌发抑制作用显著,而秀水63对稗草萌发无抑制作用;秀水63与PI312777或国稻1号混合种植后,稗草的萌发均受到抑制。盆栽和田间试验均表明,在单种情况下,稗草的生物量在PI312777和国稻1号的试验小区均低于秀水63的试验小区。秀水63与PI312777、秀水63与国稻1号混合种植,稗草的生物量均显著降低。与抗草潜力高的水稻品种（PI312777和国稻1号）混合种植,在一定程度上能增强秀水63对稗草的抑制能力。     

Competitiveness of rice (Oryza sativa L.) cultivars against Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) Beauv. in water-seeded production systems

Developing more competitive rice cultivars could help improve weed management and reduce dependency on herbicides. To achieve this goal, an understanding of key traits related to competitiveness is critical. Experiments were conducted at Gelemen and Bafra districts of Samsun province in Turkey between 2008 and 2009 to measure the competitiveness of rice cultivars against Echinochloa crus-galli, a problematic weed in rice fields. Five rice cultivars (Osmancık, Kızılırmak, Karadeniz, Koral and Neğiş) and five E. crus-galli densities (0, 5, 10, 20, and 30 plants m⁻²) were used. Koral produced significantly more tillers than the other cultivars irrespective of E. crus-galli densities and reduced E. crus-galli tiller production by about 29.5% at Gelemen and 15.8% at Bafra at the highest weed density. E. crus-galli interference reduced rice height and there was a density dependent relationship. Koral was the most competitive cultivar; it maintained high biomass accumulation in early growth stages and suffered smaller reductions in plant height in the presence of E. crus-galli, compared to the other cultivars. In the absence of weed competition, Koral and Neğiş produced the highest yields at both locations. Stepwise regression analyses of the combined data from both years showed tillering capacity, early growth crop biomass, and plant height were critical traits related to competitiveness. These traits should be considered by plant breeders in their efforts to develop rice cultivars with enhanced competitiveness against weeds. Development of such cultivars could substantially reduce herbicide and labor inputs for rice production.     

麦根腐平脐蠕孢和薏苡平脐蠕孢防治稻田稗草的生物活性和安全性

对分离自云南昆明感病稗草\[Echinochloa crus galli (L.) Beauv.\]上的病原真菌麦根腐平脐蠕孢（Bipolaris sorokiniana）和薏苡平脐蠕孢（Bipolaris coicis）开展了防治稗草潜力的评价。结果显示,B.sorokiniana和B.coicis两菌株培养5 d的发酵原液对稗草根长和芽长均有很高的抑制作用,根长最高抑制率分别为99.59%和95.78%, 芽长最高抑制率分别为91.14%和82.13%。两菌株对稗草离体叶片致病性的室内试验表明,菌丝体悬浮液处理5 d后稗草叶片病情指数最高可达100%。两菌株对稗草植株防效的温室试验表明, 菌丝体悬浮液处理稗草7 d后植株下部叶片出现萎蔫症状、脱落及死亡,处理21 d后稗草最高死亡率达到82.67%和80.00%。菌株对作物的安全性试验表明,麦根腐平脐蠕孢对作物的安全性显著高于薏苡平脐蠕孢。作为生防潜力菌株,麦根腐平脐蠕孢具有更大的应用潜力。     

Stem growth during seed production in soybean: Implications for pod yield

In soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.), stems remain a competitive carbon resource sink during reproduction. Radial stem expansion after termination of axial stem growth requires resources to produce secondary cell walls in secondary vascular tissues. The impact of both the timing and extent of secondary growth in stems on fruit production in soybean is unknown. We hypothesized that cultivars gaining higher amounts of secondary vascular tissues during seed filling would experience lower reproductive output. Four determinate cultivars were grown in a greenhouse and harvested at the beginning and ending of seed filling for biomass determination and tissue composition measurement (ImageJ-Fiji). Cultivar ‘Hanover’ entered seed filling with the lowest amount of secondary phloem. It produced the largest increase in radial stem expansion, largest seeds, and fewest undeveloped (aborted) fruits. The physiological role of active secondary phloem production in stems for seed production in soybean reproduction is unclear. We reject our initial hypothesis and propose that high fitness may require the concomitant growth of vegetative and reproductive organs.     

Changes in seed growth,levels and distribution of flavonoids during tartary buckwheat seed development

We investigated the change in seed shape and weight as well as the accumulation and distribution of anthocyanins, melanin, and flavonoids during tartary buckwheat seed development. Pericarp dry weight increased slowly while the increase in flour dry weight was much greater. Increases in the dry weight of the embryo and endosperm were associated with change in seed shape. The highest anthocyanin content was observed in stage two while the highest melanin content occurred in stage five. There was a considerable decrease in total flavonoids, rutin, quercetin and kaempferol in mature seeds relative to seeds that were still developing. Additionally, there were significant correlations (correlation coefficient > .900, p < .05) among the changes in rutin, quercetin and kaempferol between flour and the pericarp. In mature seeds, 95% of the flavonoids were present in flour.     

Herbicide effect on growth and seed production of Lolium multiflorum in Atlantic Canada

Lolium multiflorum Lam. (annual ryegrass) is used extensively as a forage crop and seed is produced in several areas worldwide. Seed production has been shown to be commercially possible in Atlantic Canada but improved weed control is needed. Studies were conducted in two provinces (Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick) to determine the effects of the herbicides bentazon, bromoxynil/MCPA, dicamba/MCPA, thifensulfuron/tribenuron, 2,4-D and MCPA on weed control, L. multiflorum growth, seed yields and seed germination in 1998 and 1999. The herbicides MCPA, dicamba/MCPA and bromoxynil/MCPA as evaluated in these experiments provided acceptable control of the broad-leaved weeds present and had no effect on seed yield or seed germination. Although the thifensulfuron/tribenuron caused early foliar injury, the plants recovered and it provided excellent weed control. None of the herbicides affected seed germination. MCPA, dicamba/MCPA and bromoxynil/MCPA could be used to provide control of broad-leaved weeds and thifensulfuron/tribenuron could be used if growers were willing to accept some early injury and possible yield loss to obtain the improved weed control.     

牧草种子生产中落粒性的影响因素与防控技术

落粒性是牧草种子生产中的关键制约因素,通常造成无芒雀麦(Bromue inermis)、冰草(Agropyron cristatum)、老芒麦(Elymus sibiricus)、高羊茅(Festuca arundinacea)、草地早熟禾(Poa pretensis)、路氏臂形草(Brachiaria ruziziensis)等优良牧草种子严重减产。本文重点阐述了种子生产中影响落粒性的因素,种子落粒性对种子生产的影响,相关减少种子落粒性的研究进展及措施,为今后在生产中降低牧草种子落粒性提供参考。     

Comparative effects of cut and treated seed tubers vs untreated whole seed tubers on seed decay, Rhizoctonia stem canker, growth, and yield of Russet Burbank Potatoes

Whole seed tubers have been reported to have performance advantages over seed tubers that have been cut, even if the cut tuber pieces are treated with a fungicide dust. For this study, whole seed tubers were compared to cut seedpieces and to cut seedpieces treated with four different commercial fungicide dusts for five consecutive seasons. A new field generation 3 Russet Burbank seed lot was used for each of the five years of this study. Both whole tubers and cut seedpieces were inoculated withFusarium spp., and the seedpieces were then treated with a fungicide dust. Inoculated and uninoculated untreated controls were also included. Emergence,Fusarium seed decay,Rhizoctonia stem canker, stem numbers, and vigor, as well as yield and grade data were obtained.Rhizoctonia stem canker in stems grown from whole seed tubers was significantly higher than in stems from seedpieces receiving fungicide treatment in several of the study years. Predicting whole seed tuber performance is difficult because performance varies more from year to year than performance of cut and treated seedpieces. Yield performance of whole seed tubers was not significantly better than cut and fungicide-treated seedpieces in any experimental year, and yield of large (over 280 g) tubers was significantly less than that recorded for two of the treatments when data from all five years were combined. This study demonstrated that untreated whole seed did not outperform cut and treated seedpieces for vigor, stem numbers, disease ratings, or yield in small plot comparisons for five consecutive seasons.     

Shade delayed flowering and decreased photosynthesis, growth and yield of Sacha Inchi (Plukenetia volubilis) plants

We examined variation in the flowering phenology of Sacha Inchi (Plukenetia volubilis) plants monitored during an 8-month period with reference to a light gradient (20%, 52%, 75% and 100% of full sunlight), and related these results to photosynthetic features, growth and fruit yield. With strong phenotypically plastic response to light, relative growth rate and photosynthetic capability continually increased with increasing irradiance and their maximum values were much similar to those of the pioneer species. Shade did not increase the apparent quantum yield and reduce the light saturation point and respiration rate. Thus, it was suggested that P. volubilis is a high-light demanding species. Shade delayed initial flowering date and decreased flower and fruit parts. An earlier initiation of flowering was associated with higher flower biomass and plant total biomass, in turn; the latter was positively correlated with fruit biomass across light gradients. These results suggested that an optimized crop management practice should be adopted to ensure that P. volubilis be grown under conditions with minimal shading.     

The effect of five growth regulators on apical dominance in potato seed tubers and on subsequent tuber production

Summary Of five growth regulators applied to seed tubers in January when sprout growth had just started, only gibberellic acid (GA) materially affected apical dominance or subsequent development. GA increased the number of sprouts by one third and induced the production of many stolon-like branches. After planting, the number of main stems was greater with GA, as was the number of branch stems and tubers; total yield was not affected, but the yield of seed-sized tubers was increased by up to 70%.

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Zusammenfassung Frühere Arbeiten über den Einfluss der Keimbildung zu verschiedenen Zeitpunkten deuteten an, dass eine Kombination von früher Keimildung und Verminderung der apikalen Dominanz notwendig ist, um die Knollenzahl pro Pflanzstelle zu erh?hen. Es wurde ein Versuch gemacht, die apikale Dominanz zu verringern, indem Pflanzkartoffeln im Januar unmittelbar nach Beginn des Keimwachstums mit fünf Wachstumsregulatoren in je drei Konzentrationen behandelt wurden. Die Einzelheiten der Verfahren sind im Abschnitt ‘Material and Methods’ angegeben; ihre Wirkung auf das Keim- und Stengelwachstum sowie auf die Knollenzahl und den Ertrag sind in Tabelle 1 aufgeführt. Nur die Gibberellins?ure (GA) beeinflusste die apikale Dominanz oder das nachfolgende Wachstum wesentlich. GA erh?hte die Anzahl der Keime und der Haupttriebe um 1/3, ebenso erh?hte sie stark die Anzahl der stolonenartigen Seitentreibe an den Keimen; einige der letzteren entwickleten sich nach dem Auspflanzen wahrscheinlich in Seitenstengel. Zweimalige Behandlung der Knollen mit Konzentrationen von 50und 100 ppm verursachten ein früheres Auflaufen und eine frühere Knollenbildung; dies im Gegensatz zu Bruinsma et al. (1967) und Lovell und Booth (1967), die fanden, dass GA den Beginn der Knollenbildung verz?gere. Der frühere Beginn der Knollenbildung wurde durch das frühere Auflaufen und das fortgeschrittene Stolonen-wachstum zur Zeit des Auspflanzens erm?glicht. Es waren kein signifikanten Einfluss von GA auf den Krautertrag bei irgendeiner der drei Musterentnahmen (Abb. 1) und keine ungünstigen Symptome, wie z.B. die von andern Forschern beobachtete Chlorose, festzustellen. Unbehandeltes Pflanzgut und solches, das zweimal mit einer GA-L?sung von 5, 50 und 100 ppm behandelt wurde, ergaben 10.8, 13.7, 17.0 bzw. 19.8 Knollen pro Staude und einen Pflanzknollenertrag von 12.4, 15.6, 17.6 bzw. 21.2 Tonnen/ha (Tabelle 2). Diese Unterschiede in der Knollenanzahl waren zur Zeit des Beginns der Knollenbildung schon klar ersichtlich (Abb. 1). Die in der Literatur berichtete Unterschiedlchkeit in der Reaktion der Gibberellins?ure wird im Zusammenhang mit der Anwendungs-methode und dem Zusatand der Pflanzknolle zur Zeit der Behandlung besprochen. Man kommt zum Schluss, dass weitere Arbeiten über Faktoren, die die Aufnahme von GA durch die Knollen beeinflussen, notwendig sind, bevor die Verwendung für die Produktion von Pflanzkartoffeln für den Handel empfohlen werden kann.

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Résumé Une étude précédente sur l'effet des variations dans la durée de la germination a suggéré l'hypothèse qu'une combinaison de la germination précoce et de la réduction de la dominance apicale était nécessaire pour accro?tre le nombre de tubercules par touffe. On a réalisé un essai de réduction de la dominance apicale par application de cinq régulateurs de croissance, à 3 concentrations chacun, à des plants de pomme de terre, en janvier, au moment du départ de la germination. Les détails des traitements sont donnés dans le paragraphe ‘Materials and methods’ et leurs effets sur la croissance du germe et de la tige, de même que sur le nombre de tubercules et la production figurent au tableau 1. Seul l'acide gibberellique (GA) influence réellement la dominance apicale ou la croissance subséquente. GA augmente de 1/3 le nombre de germes et de tiges principales et augmente également le nombre de ramifications semblables à un stolon sur les germes; plusieurs de ces derniers se développent probablement en branches de tiges après la plantation. GA pulvérisé deux fois sur les tubercules aux concentrations de 50 et 100 ppm a donné une levée plus précoce, de même qu'une initiation plus précoce des tubercules, contrairement à Bruinsma et d'autres (1967), Lovell et Booth (1967) qui trouvaient que GA retardait celle-ci. Il est possible que l'initiation plus précoce précoce soit due à une levée plus rapide et à une croissance plus avancée de stolons au moment de la plantation. Il ne se révèle aucun effet significatif de GA sur le développement foliaire à aucun des trois arrachages d'échantillons (Fig. 1) et aucun sympt?me nuisible, telle la chlorose signalée par certains chercheurs, n'a été observée. Les plants non traités et ceux traités deux fois avec des solutions de GA de 5, 50 et 100 ppm donnaient 10,8, 13,7, 17 et 19,8 tubercules par touffe, et les productions de plants étaient de 12,4, 15,6, 17,6 et 21,2 tonnes/ha respectivement (Tableau 2). Ces différences dans les nombres de tubercules apparaissent clairement au moment de l'initiation des tubercules (Fig. 1). L'auteur discute des variations dans la réaction à l'acide gibberellique rapportées dans la littérature en fonction de la méthode d'application et de l'état du plant au moment du traitement; il conclut qu'une recherche ultérieure sur les facteurs qui affectent l'absorption de GA par les tubercules est nécessaire avant que l'on puisse recommander son utilisation dans la production commerciale de plants.

     

种植方式、疏叶及昆虫对杂交大豆制种产量的影响

为提高杂交大豆的制种产量,本文研究繁种中杂交大豆父母本种植方式、人工疏叶和传粉昆虫对制种产量的影响。结果表明,父母本同穴混合种植,能够提高昆虫的异交传粉几率,显著提高不育系的单株结荚数量,比传统的父母本1:1成行种植提高20.40%（蜜蜂传粉）和30.52%（苜蓿切叶蜂传粉）,其中苜蓿切叶蜂的传粉效率显著高于蜜蜂。在大豆开花期间疏父母本整株三出复叶中的两个小叶片,改变叶片的空间分布,可显著提高不育系的结荚率,使JLCMS9A和JLCMS4A两个不育系结荚率分别达到24.1%和65.3%,比对照提高了68.82%和54.01%。     

丸化剂对水稻种子出苗和秧苗生长的影响

以早稻品种金优974、湘早籼31号和晚稻品种新香优80、湘早籼10号为材料,比较研究了自研的丸化剂与进口种衣剂对水稻萌发、出苗、秧苗素质、苗期抗病虫能力的效应.结果表明,用丸化种衣剂包衣有利于种子发芽和出苗,提高秧苗综合素质.其中,成秧率提高6.8%～9.4%,秧苗根系活力提高7.1%～32.4%,病虫害防治效果分别达到95.7%～98.5%和77.5%～90.35%.