不同转座子介导的基因捕获效率比较

为了比较SB(Sleeping Beauty)、PB(PiggyBac)和Tol2 3种转座子介导的基因捕获效率,本研究构建了含有3种转座子的启动子捕获载体pT3-PST-Pro-Trap。将此载体分别和SB、PB和Tol2 3种转座酶mRNA按照质量比1.0∶1.5的比例注射斑马鱼(Danio rerio)一细胞胚胎,通过检测绿色荧光蛋白报告基因(GFP)的表达水平比较不同转座子的捕获效率。结果显示,3种转座子介导的启动子捕获载体能够高效率捕获内源基因启动子,进而驱动GFP的表达;注射后培养36 h时的SB、PB和Tol2捕获效率分别为24.32%、30.70%和18.87%,PB捕获效率显著高于SB和Tol2(P0.05);3种转座子在60 h时的捕获效率均高于36 h的,其中SB和Tol2组差异达显著水平(P0.05),而PB组差异不显著(P0.05)。本研究结果表明,SB、PB和Tol2转座子介导的基因捕获技术可以用于脊椎动物高通量功能基因筛选,为功能基因研究提供有效新方法。     

Sleeping Beauty (SB)转座子介导增强型绿色荧光蛋白基因(EGFP)体内转染鸡胚胎

为了探索转座子介导技术在鸡胚中的转染效果,本研究采用鸡蛋开窗法将Sleeping Beauty (SB)单质粒转座载体pT2-SV40-EGFP-SB11注射至孵化36 h鸡(Gallus domes ticus)胚盘中,同时设开窗不注射组和不开窗组.利用体视荧光显微镜和RT-PCR方法检测增强型绿色荧光蛋白基因(EGFP)表达率,并比较不同阶段的胚胎成活率、孵化率以及蛋重变化.结果表明,EGFP在鸡胚胎中获得较高的表达率(40％～89％);开窗组和不开窗组在胚胎发育早期蛋重变化差异不显著(P＞0.05),而后期开窗注射组的蛋重比例显著低于不开窗组(P＜0.05);三组胚胎的成活率和孵化率在整个发育过程中变化显著(P＜0.05).本实验初步证明了经改良的鸡蛋开窗法可用于鸡胚转基因研究,并初步建立了SB转座子介导外源基因在鸡胚中转染方法.     

睡美人转座子真核表达载体的构建及在猪胎儿成纤维细胞系中的表达验证

睡美人(sleeping beauty,SB)是Tc1/mariner转座子超家族的一员,为探索睡美人转座子与不同的转座酶搭配使用及与同种转座酶不同比例搭配使用时的转座效率,本实验构建了SB真核表达重组载体PT2-SV40-EGFP,通过荧光显微镜和实时荧光定量PCR(qRT-PCR)检测进行了猪胎儿成纤维细胞系(PEFs)转染条件优化研究.研究结果表明,不同转座酶与转座子按10∶1混合后细胞转染效率相似,但报告基因表达水平有较大差异,其中SB 100X转座酶与转座子混合后细胞的表达水平最高;转座子PT2-SV40-EGFP质粒和SB 100X转座酶质粒按不同比例混合转染细胞研究表明,细胞转染效率相似,但表达水平存在显著差异,其中1∶1组最高,约是5∶1组和10∶1组的50倍.本实验优化了睡美人转座子的转座条件为制备转基因动物深入研究提供参考.     

原核注射制备转基因小鼠的技术优化

原核注射技术已经是目前制备转基因小鼠(Mus musculus)最有效的手段,但不同实验室所报道的转基因效率差异较大,效率不高仍是该技术的主要缺点.为提高转基因小鼠的制备效率,本研究对转基因小鼠制备过程中的原核注射的多个方面都进行了改进,尤其是在注射针直径、外源基因浓度、单/双原核注射以及胚胎移植等主要步骤上的进行了优化.实验结果表明,不同浓度的外源基因对转基因小鼠的阳性率有很大影响.外源基因为1.00、2.50、3.00和4.00 μg/mL浓度时,转基因小鼠阳性率分别0.67％、14.9％、30.6％和21.4％.其中,外源基因浓度在3.00 μg/mL极显著高于其他各组(P＜0.01).采用阳性率最高的3.00 μg/mL浓度又进行了单双/原核注射比较,发现转基因阳性率在进行双原核注射组显著高于单原核注射组(24.3％ vs.18.3％,P＜0.01).将显微注射后的2细胞时期胚胎经输卵管移植到0.5、1.5和2.5d假孕母鼠体内,产仔率分别为68.6％、67.6％和40.1％,转基因阳性率为17.4％、22.5％和10.1％.比较发现,0.5 d与1.5d代孕母鼠产仔率没有差异,但1.5d代孕组转基因阳性率(22.5％)显著高于其他组.结果表明,采用尽可能细的注射针、2～4 μg/mL的DNA载体浓度、双原核注射、1.5d的假孕母鼠和正确的胚胎移植操作,是获得高效率转基因小鼠的关键.本研究对从事动物转基因技术研究的实验室提供一些有益的借鉴.     

ICSI介导生产转基因牛胚胎影响因素的研究

采用牛体外成熟卵母细胞和冷冻解冻的精子为材料,以pEGFP-N1为模式基因,探讨DNA浓度、精子质膜破损方法、注射台温度对牛精子胞质内注射（ICSI）介导转基因效果的影响。结果表明：线性pEGFPN1质粒DNA浓度为5μg/mL、10μg/mL两组的早期胚胎发育率显著高于50μg/mL组（19.8%,16.7%VS 7.9%,p〈0.05）。以冻融、TritonX100、超声波断尾三种方法破损精子质膜,冻融组的囊胚发育率（24.7%）最高,且冻融组的早期胚胎基因表达率极显著高于超声断尾组（41%VS 20.5%,p〈0.01）;当分别在25℃、38℃的注射台进行显微注射时,两组之间胚胎的囊胚率无显著差异（p〉0.05）,但二者之间胚胎的基因表达率差异显著（46.83%VS 28.57%,p〈0.05）。以上结果表明：（1）牛精子转染外源GFP基因的浓度不宜过高,转染高浓度的DNA会影响胚胎发育;（2）精子质膜是阻碍外源DNA与牛精子相结合的主要因素,将精子冻融处理可有效破损其质膜,利于精子与外源DNA的结合,从而提高ICSI介导转基因效率;（3）25℃和38℃热台温度对牛ICSI胚胎的早期发育无影响,但25℃热台温度可提高牛ICSI介导转基因的效果。     

猪诱导多能干细胞(iPS)嵌合胚胎的制备

猪诱导多能干细胞(iPS)具有自我更新和多向分化潜能,是医学和细胞生物学研究理想的材料。为了探索猪iPS细胞的胚胎嵌合能力,本实验采用piggyBac转座子系统PB[Act-RFP]DS和Act-PBase载体,共转染猪iPS细胞,获得带有红色荧光标记的猪iPS细胞株PS24-R。并通过显微注射方法,将供体细胞PS24-R注入到4~8细胞期的胚胎腔隙,制备嵌合胚胎,待其继续发育至囊胚阶段,统计PS24-R细胞在胚胎中的嵌合情况。结果显示,通过转座子系统piggyBac标记的猪PS24-R细胞能够稳定表达红色荧光,以其作为供体细胞制备猪嵌合胚胎能够有效观察iPS细胞在胚胎中的嵌合情况。将1、5和10个猪PS24-R细胞和1个猪PS24-R细胞团分别注射到猪胚胎中构建嵌合胚胎,随着猪iPS细胞注射数量的增加,注射胚胎的囊胚率逐渐下降,但嵌合比例逐渐升高。同时与孤雌胚胎相比,嵌合胚胎中多能基因OCT4、SOX2和NANOG表达显著提高。由此可见,采用piggyBac转座子标记的猪PS24-R细胞能够在猪早期胚胎发育阶段实现嵌合,为iPS细胞嵌合猪的生产提供了基础资料。     

利用不同基因转移方法构建转基因红鲤

本实验研究了大黄鱼肌肉生长抑素前肽基因对红鲤的促生长作用。分别通过RT-PCR和PCR从大黄鱼(Larimichtys crocea)和pIRES-EGFP质粒扩增得到了肌肉生长抑素(MSTN)前肽基因及核糖体内部进入位点序列(IRES)-增强型绿色荧光蛋白基因(EGFP)片段,经测序验证正确后,构建了Tol2转座子供体质粒pT2AL200R150G-MSTN propeptide-IRES-EGFP。通过精子介导法(S1、S2组)、电穿孔法(E1、E2组)及基因枪法构建转基因红鲤(Cyprinus carpio),孵化72h后的鱼苗经荧光显微镜检测,EGFP表达阳性率为:精子介导法S1组38%,精子介导法S2组48%,电穿孔E1组47%,电穿孔E2组53%,基因枪组2%;孵化10d的仔鱼RT-PCR检测EGFP和MSTN前肽基因阳性率为:精子介导法S1组35%,精子介导法S2组45%,电穿孔E1组45%,电穿孔E2组55%,基因枪组1.8%。孵化后75d转基因红鲤与对照组相比,体长和体重分别提高了21.31%和27.59%。本实验结果表明,精子经高渗、低渗保存剂处理并通过电穿孔作用可大幅提高基因转移效率。     

家蚕胞质肌动蛋白基因启动子的克隆及piggyBac转座子表达载体的构建

摘要: 利用PCR方法从家蚕（Bombyx mori）总DNA中克隆到细胞质肌动蛋白基因（cytoplasmic actin）启动子片段，序列分析表明，该片段中含有典型的组成型表达的细胞质肌动蛋白基因A3（BmA3）调控序列：SRE元件（serum response element）和ActE1元件(active element 1)。该序列的核苷酸序列与来自欧洲的一个家蚕品种的序列同源性为94%。通过多次重组，将A3启动子片段(不含信号肽序列)与转座子 piggyBac的转座酶编码区融合构建成辅助质粒；将其(含信号肽序列和部分编码区)与报告基因多管水母绿色荧光蛋白基因gfp融合，插入到人工合成的转座子piggyBac两反向重复末端序列之间，进而构建成基于转座子piggyBac的转基因载体。研究中构建的转座子转基因载体仅6.4 kb，并在两反向重复末端序列之间设计了1个多克隆位点区，便于目的基因的插入。     

Hsp70在小鼠体外早期胚胎发育中的表达

为探究热休克蛋白Hsp70在小鼠体外早期胚胎发育中的表达情况以及Hsp70在胚胎发育中的作用机理,本试验采集8~12周龄SPF小白鼠的卵巢,在体式显微镜下采集卵母细胞并培养成熟,用0.1%透明质酸酶消化卵丘卵母细胞复合体后,放入SrCl₂+CB液中进行5 h(37℃)的孤雌激活,然后移入G1培养液进行培养。取培养至2细胞期、4~8细胞期、9~16细胞期、桑椹期和囊胚期的小鼠胚胎提取总RNA,通过实时荧光定量PCR检测Hsp70在各个时期的表达情况,免疫荧光染色检测其在各个时期小鼠胚胎的表达定位。实时荧光定量PCR结果表明,Hsp70在小鼠体外早期胚胎的2细胞期、4~8细胞期、9~16细胞期、桑椹期、囊胚期都有表达,但在2细胞期胚胎和4~8细胞期胚胎的相对表达水平较高,在9~16细胞期胚胎、桑椹期胚胎和囊胚期胚胎的相对表达水平较低。免疫荧光染色结果显示,Hsp70定位于各个时期胚胎的细胞核和细胞质中,但9~16细胞期以后Hsp70主要定位于细胞核中。综上所述,Hsp70对小鼠体外早期胚胎的发育具有潜在的调控作用,这为进一步明确热休克蛋白Hsp70在胚胎抗热应激中的作用及机理研究提供了理论依据。     

低氮和干旱胁迫对富士和秦冠生长及氮素利用的影响

【目的】以富士（Fuji）、 秦冠（Qinguan）嫁接在平邑甜茶（Malus hupehensis Rehd.）上的当年生盆栽苗为试验材料,采用砂培方法,研究了缺氮胁迫和干旱对富士和秦冠生长情况、 光合参数、 植株各部位氮磷钾含量及氮素利用效率的影响,分析比较了低氮干旱条件下富士和秦冠生长及氮素利用的差异,以期为果树生产高效肥水利用提供理论指导。【方法】试验共设四个处理: 正常氮正常水（ZZ）、 低氮正常水（DZ）、 正常氮干旱（ZG）、 低氮干旱（DG）。氮素和水分均设置两个水平,分别为正常氮（6 mmol/L NO-3-N）、 低氮（0.3 mmol/LNO-3-N）、 正常供水（保持盆中砂子相对含水量为饱和含水量的80%~85%）、 干旱处理（保持盆中砂子相对含水量为饱和含水量的60%~65%）。【结果】富士和秦冠的生物量（茎和叶）、 株高茎粗等生长指标以及光合速率、 气孔导度、 蒸腾速率均为正常氮正常水（ZZ）＞低氮正常水（DZ）＞正常氮干旱（ZG）＞低氮干旱（DG）,并且相对应处理下秦冠的以上指标均高于富士;正常供水下,缺氮处理使富士、 秦冠的根冠比比正常氮处理均有所增加,富士提高了2.05%,秦冠提高了22.40%。富士和秦冠的氮、 磷、 钾含量均表现出正常氮正常水（ZZ）＞低氮正常水（DZ）＞正常氮干旱（ZG）＞低氮干旱（DG）; 氮、 钾元素含量在植株各部位的分布顺序依次是叶＞根＞茎,磷元素则是根＞叶＞茎;光合氮素利用效率（PNUE）和氮素利用效率表现为秦冠处理之间差异极显著,富士处理之间差异不显著;秦冠的PNUE和NUE明显高于富士,在低氮正常水（DZ）处理下,秦冠氮肥利用率比富士高42.07%,在低氮干旱（DG）处理下高64.14%;低氮胁迫下富士和秦冠的NUE显著提高,并且秦冠提高的幅度高于富士。【结论】施用氮肥能够显著提高富士与秦冠的干物质量,同等水肥条件下,秦冠生长优于富士;水分亏缺会减少叶片对氮的吸收,干旱条件下适度增施氮肥,可提高果树的抗旱能力;低氮干旱胁迫下秦冠的生长指标、 光合指标及氮素利用效率指标均优于富士,表现出较强的抗低氮干旱胁迫的能力。     

Pasture Vegetation Elemental Analysis by Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy

Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) is a new technique for the analysis of plant material. This study investigates the application of LIBS to pasture-based plant samples. The LIBS measurements were obtained from pelletized pasture samples (100 samples) that had been also analyzed by inductively coupled plasma–optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES) following microwave digestion for calibration and comparison purposes. Comparisons for elements sodium (Na), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), boron (B), phosphorus (P), and sulfur (S) showed that LIBS could be used for almost all the standard profile total elements with concentrations down to low mg/kg levels (observed error of Na: 0.024 percent, K: 0.18 percent, Mg: 0.016 percent, Ca: 0.073 percent, P: 0.017 percent, Mn: 31 mg/kg, Fe: 150 mg/kg, Zn: 6.6 mg/kg, and B: 1.1 mg/kg). Elemental analysis at less than mg/kg levels was not possible using LIBS. The elements S and Cu were particularly difficult to analyze with reliability using LIBS at the concentration levels found in the plant samples. Replacing microwave digestion and subsequent ICP analysis with a direct analysis of dried plant samples using LIBS has the potential to improve the productivity and reduce the cost of testing.     

Faculty positions:Center for Agricultural Resources Research,Chinese Academy of Sciences

正The Center for Agricultural Resources Research(CARR),the Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology(IGDB),Chinese Academy of Sciences,invites applicants for several research group leader positions.CARR is one of the research organizations in Chinese Academy of Sciences(CAS).We seek nominations and applications from individuals who have expertise and a record of accomplishment in research areas related to ecology,agro-hydrology,     

Macroinvertebrates in North American tallgrass prairie soils: effects of fire, mowing, and fertilization on density and biomass

The responses of tallgrass prairie plant communities and ecosystem processes to fire and grazing are well characterized. However, responses of invertebrate consumer groups, and particularly soil-dwelling organisms, to these disturbances are not well known. At Konza Prairie Biological Station, we sampled soil macroinvertebrates in 1994 and 1999 as part of a long-term experiment designed to examine the effects and interactions of annual fire, mowing, and fertilization (N and P) on prairie soil communities and processes. For nearly all taxa, in both years, responses were characterized by significant treatment interactions, but some general patterns were evident. Introduced European earthworms (Aporrectodea spp. and Octolasion spp.) were most abundant in plots where fire was excluded, and the proportion of the total earthworm community consisting of introduced earthworms was greater in unburned, unmowed, and fertilized plots. Nymphs of two Cicada genera were collected (Cicadetta spp. and Tibicen spp.). Cicadetta nymphs were more abundant in burned plots, but mowing reduced their abundance. Tibicen nymphs were collected almost exclusively from unburned plots. Treatment effects on herbivorous beetle larvae (Scarabaeidae, Elateridae, and Curculionidae) were variable, but nutrient additions (N or P) usually resulted in greater densities, whereas mowing usually resulted in lower densities. Our results suggest that departures from historical disturbance regimes (i.e. frequent fire and grazing) may render soils more susceptible to increased numbers of European earthworms, and that interactions between fire, aboveground biomass removal, and vegetation responses affect the structure and composition of invertebrate communities in tallgrass prairie soils.     

Variation in quality parameters between and within 14 Nordic tree fruit and berry species

Abstract

A 3-year study was carried out to investigate quality parameters in 14 tree fruit and berry species grown in southern Norway. The species were blueberry, apple, aronia, sour cherry, sweet cherry, red raspberry, strawberry, blackcurrant, gooseberry, red currant and elderberry, harvested along with wild bilberry, cloudberry and lingonberry. Significant differences between species were identified for all quality parameters. The coefficient of variation between species was lowest for pH (12.5%), dry matter (18.9%) and soluble solids (25.3%), followed by titratable acids (59.3%), total phenolics (83.8%), antioxidant capacity FRAP (85.7%) and antiradical power by the DPPH-assay (97.8%), total monomeric anthocyanins (132%) and ascorbic acid (137%). Average coefficient of variation within species were lower and ranged from 4 (pH) to 62% (ascorbic acid). Only the FRAP values were significantly affected by harvesting year with lower levels in 2004 than in 2005 and 2006. There were significant interactions between species and harvesting year for dry matter, soluble solids, pH, ascorbic acid and FRAP. The results indicate generic ranges in composition within species independent upon growing location and climate, and the composition of the tree fruits and berries is not likely to deviate from these ranges. It is concluded that desirable composition of tree fruits and berries and their products should primarily be achieved by selection among species rather than searching fors broadened variation within individual species.     

Potassium Fixation and Release Characteristics in Rhizosphere and Nonrhizosphere Soils for a Rapeseed–Rice Cropping Sequence

Potassium (K) fixation and release in soil are important factors in the long-term sustainability of a cropping system. Changes in K concentration and characteristics of K fixation and release in rhizosphere and nonrhizosphere soils in the rapeseed (Brassica napus L.)–rice (Oryza sativa L.) rotation were investigated using a rhizobox system. The concentrations of different forms of K in both rhizosphere and nonrhizosphere soils decreased with plants compared to without plants, regardless of K fertilizer application. Potassium uptake by crops mainly came from the rhizosphere soil. In the treatment without K fertilizer (–K), the main form of K supplied by the soil to the crops was 1.0 mol L^?1 nitric acid (HNO₃) nonextractable K, followed by nonexchangeable K, and then exchangeable K. In the treatment with K fertilizer (+K), the main K forms supplied by the soil to the crops were exchangeable K and nonexchangeable K. The amount and rate of K fixation after one cycle of the rapeseed–rice rotation was greater in rhizosphere soil than in nonrhizosphere soil. The amount and rate of K fixation of soil in the +K treatment were significantly less than in the –K treatment. The cumulative amounts of K released with 1.0 mol L^?1 ammonium acetate (NH₄OAc) and 1.0 mol L^?1 HNO₃ extraction increased with the increasing numbers of extractions, but the K-releasing power of soil by successive extraction decreased gradually and finally became almost constant. The release of K was less in rhizosphere soil than in nonrhizosphere soil. The release of K in the +K treatment was similar to that in the –K treatment in rhizosphere soil, but the K release in nonrhizosphere soil was greater with the +K than the –K treatment. Overall, the information obtained in this study will be helpful in formulating more precise K fertilizer recommendations for certain soils.     

Increase in auxiliary photoprotective photosynthetic pigments in wheat seedlings induced by Azospirillum brasilense

Inoculation of wheat seedlings with the plant growth-promoting bacterium Azospirillum brasilense Cd was immobilized in alginate microbeads and, without applying any stress, significantly increased the quantity of several photosynthetic pigments, such as chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and the auxiliary photoprotective pigments violaxanthin, zeaxanthin, antheroxanthin, lutein, neoxanthin, and β-carotene. This resulted in greener plants with no apparent visible stress. After monitoring the quantity of photosynthetic pigments for 4 weeks, we observed that inoculated plants had higher quantities of pigments in shoot and stem. The greatest difference in the quantity of all pigments between inoculated and noninoculated plants occurred in the first week of growth. Regardless of treatment, the quantity of pigments in stems was three to four times less than the quantity of these pigments in shoots. Application of Azospirillum, either as liquid inoculant or as alginate microbeads, did not alter the positive effect of the bacteria on pigment production or the positive response of the plants towards A. brasilense Cd inoculation.     

In-situ enrichment and analysis of atrazine-degrading microbial communities using atrazine-containing porous beads

We examined the community composition of microbes that colonized atrazine-containing beads buried in agricultural soils that differed in atrazine treatment history. Bacterial abundance was 5-40-fold greater in atrazine-fortified beads. In beads containing 20 mg atrazine kg⁻¹ buried in soil with a history of atrazine application (conditioned soil), the abundance of Actinobacteria increased approximately 80-fold whereas in control soil, Actinobacteria were enriched only 10-fold and the gamma-Proteobacteria and Planctomycetes increased by 60- and 25-fold, respectively. The gamma-Proteobacteria were enriched by 120- and 230-fold in beads containing 200 mg atrazine kg⁻¹ in conditioned and control soil, respectively. The results demonstrate that BioSep^® beads are a suitable matrix for recruiting a diverse subset of the bacterial community involved in atrazine degradation.     

Genetic similarities among Spanisch populations of Agropyron, Elymus and Thinopyrum, using PCR-based markers

Arbitrary oligonucleotides were used as primers to amplifygenomic DNA of 48 wild Spanish populations of Agropyroncristatum, Elymus hispanicus,E. caninus,E. repens,Thinopyrum curvifolium, Th.junceum and Th.intermedium. Genetic diversity was analysedusing nineteen primers. The number of amplified products ranged from8 to 18 per primer and a total of 240 markers were scored. Differentlevels of intraspecific genetic diversity were found, the allogamousspecies E. repens andTh. intermedium being themost variable. Jaccard's similarity coefficients for internalmeasure within and between populations were used to produce a clusterdiagram. The results demonstrate differences in the degree ofsimilarity between taxonomic units. Interpopulational variability andinterspecific genomic relationships of these species arediscussed.     

Mycorrhizae,biocides, and biocontrol. 4. Response of a mixed culture of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and host plant to three fungicides

The effects of three commonly used fungicides on the colonization and sporulation by a mixture of three arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi consisting of Glomus etunicatum (Becker & Gerd.), Glomus mosseae (Nicol. & Gerd.) Gerd. & Trappe, and Gigaspora rosea (Nicol. & Schenck) in symbiosis with pea plants and the resulting response of the host-plant were examined. Benomyl, PCNB, and captan were applied as soil drenches at a rate of 20 mg active ingredient kg^-1 soil 2 weeks after transplanting pea seedlings in a silty clay-loam soil containing the mixed inocula of AM fungi (AM plants). Effects of fungicides were compared to untreated plants that were inoculated with fungi (AM control). The effect of mycorrhizal inoculation on plant growth was also examined by including nonmycorrhizal, non-fungicide-treated plants (non-AM control). Fungicides or inoculation with AM fungi had only a small effect on the final shoot weights of pea plants, but had greater effects on root length and seed yield. AM control plants had higher seed yields and lower root lengths than the corresponding non-AM plants, and the fungicide-treated AM plants had intermediate yields and root lengths. Seed N and P contents were likewise highest in AM control plants, lowest in non-AM plants, and intermediate in fungicide-treated AM plants. All three fungicides depressed the proportion (%) of root length colonized by AM fungi, but these differences did not translate to reductions in the total root length that was colonized, since roots were longer in the fungicide-treated AM plants. Pea plants apparently compensated for the reduction in AM-fungal metabolism due to fungicides by increasing root growth. Fungicides affected the population of the three fungi as determined by sporulation at the final harvest. Captan significantly reduced the number, relative abundance, and relative volume of G. rosea spores in the final population relative to the controls. The relative volume of G. etunicatum spores was greater in all the fungicide-treated soils, while G. mosseae relative volumes were only greater in the captan-treated soil. These findings show that fungicides can alter the species composition of an AM-fungal community. The results also show that AM fungi can increase seed yield without enhancing the vegetative shoot growth of host plants.