胎猪胰腺干细胞体外诱导分化为胰岛素分泌细胞及其移植治疗裸鼠糖尿病的研究

缺乏供体细胞制约着胰岛替代疗法在Ⅰ型糖尿病治疗过程中的应用。本研究对实验室分离保存的胎猪胰腺干细胞(fetal porcine pancreatic stem cells,FPPSCs),体外诱导分化为胰岛素分泌细胞以及移植治疗裸鼠糖尿病的能力进行了深入研究,以探讨该细胞株作为异种供体细胞的潜力。研究结果表明,该细胞体外增殖活力旺盛,其形态及表面抗原表达特征与间充质干细胞极其相似,除表达胰腺干细胞相关标志外,FPPSCs还表达一些胚胎干细胞的相关标志。采用无血清诱导方案诱导2周后,FPPSCs形成DTZ染色阳性的胰岛样细胞团(islet-like cell cluster,ICC),该细胞团表达胰岛素、Glut-2等胰岛素分泌细胞功能相关的蛋白。RT-PCR结果显示,诱导后,胰腺干细胞相关标志表达减弱,而成熟胰岛素分泌细胞相关标志表达增强。葡萄糖刺激实验结果显示,诱导后,FPPSCs合成、分泌胰岛素和C-肽的能力显著增强(P<0.05)。将诱导2周后的细胞移植到糖尿病裸鼠腹腔内,可缓解其高血糖状况。结果提示,FPPSCs具有间充质干细胞的特性,体外能够诱导分化为胰岛素分泌细胞,并具有改善糖尿病裸鼠高血糖症状的...     

牛肌肉卫星细胞向胰岛素分泌细胞的诱导转分化研究

肌肉卫星细胞是源自中胚层的肌源干细胞,具有增殖分化融合成肌管并形成肌细胞的能力.在体内条件下,肌肉卫星细胞不可能跨胚层分化为内胚层来源的胰腺细胞.本研究从牛(Bos taurus)胎儿肌肉中分离培养得到肌肉卫星细胞,并在体外条件下将其诱导成胰岛素分泌细胞.在诱导过程中,分析了与胰腺发育相关的胰十二指肠同源基因盒1基因(pancreatic and duodenal homeobox 1,PDX1)、神经原素3基因(neurogenin 3,NGN3)、淀粉酶基因(Amylase)和胰岛素基因(Insulin,INS)的动态表达情况.结果表明,PDX1作为决定胰腺分化发育和胰岛功能的主要调节基因,在诱导分化的第2天能够检测到其mRNA的表达,在第3天表达量达到了最大,第4天以后维持在较低水平.NGN3是内分泌细胞形成非常重要的转录因子,是能够将胰岛素分泌到胞外的关键基因,其mRNA在分化诱导的第3天开始表达,第4天达到最高水平,之后逐渐下降.Amylase是胰腺发育中细胞外分泌相关的基因,Amylase mRNA在第6天才开始表达,8d后达到最高.INS mRNA表达量在11～12 d最高,酶联免疫吸附分析(enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay,ELISA)发现,诱导形成的胰腺细胞能够正常分泌胰岛素,培养液中胰岛素的浓度在诱导的11～12 d达到最高值.向培养液中添加葡萄糖后,可使细胞的胰岛素分泌量显著提高,说明诱导得到的细胞类似于成体胰岛的功能,其胰岛素分泌受外界葡萄糖浓度的调节.上述结果表明,肌肉卫星细胞可以被诱导转分化为胰岛素分泌细胞,并对培养环境中的葡萄糖刺激做出应答反应.本研究结果为进一步的研究和临床应用提供基础资料.     

胎猪胰腺干细胞的分离与鉴定

从胎猪胰腺分离得到一株细胞，该细胞经免疫组化检测表达PDX-1，GLUT-2，PCNA，Glucagon，somatostatin，polypeptide，弱表达nestin，目前细胞已传至58代。其在体外的生长行为有类似间充质干细胞样生长形态，经诱导后可分化为具有三维立体结构的类胰岛细胞团。成团后细胞强表达insulin、ck-19等标志，放免测定显示诱导成团后细胞胰岛素分泌量增加，显著高于未诱导细胞（P<0.05）。说明胰腺内存在着多潜能干细胞，本方法分离到胎猪胰腺干细胞，经诱导分化可形成有功能的胰岛样细胞团并释放胰岛素,有望为进一步研究异种胰腺干细胞移植治疗糖尿病提供材料。     

猪前体脂肪细胞与肌卫星细胞体外联合培养

利用差速贴壁法分别纯化前体脂肪细胞与肌卫星细胞,按1∶10的浓度比接种混合培养。以单独两类细胞培养作对照,采用油红O染色和Desmin免疫组化染色鉴定,通过形态学观察和MTT比色绘制生长曲线研究细胞生长规律。结果表明,Desmin免疫组化染色观察肌细胞阳性率达97%以上,油红O染色计数诱导分化细胞比率大于60%;形态学观察发现,联合培养细胞接触汇合前形态呈梭形,接触后不规则重叠交织生长;充脂细胞呈现较晚,且数量稀少;HE染色可见多核细胞融合成肌管样结构;测定2～9d细胞生长曲线显示,联合细胞组增殖比率大于对照组,经历2～3d潜伏期、3～7d指数生长期后,并未与对照组同步进入平台期,而呈持续缓慢上升趋势。实验初步实现了体外猪前体脂肪细胞与肌卫星细胞的直接联合培养,并显示其与对照组生长特性存在差异。     

国产丝裂霉素处理的STO细胞作为饲养层培养牛胚胎干细胞

寻找一种适合牛胚胎干细胞生长的饲养层对成功培育牛胚胎干细胞有重要意义.本研究采用不同浓度国产丝裂霉素处理的SIM小鼠(Mus musculus)成纤维细胞耐硫代鸟嘌呤和耐鸟苯苷亚系(STO细胞)作为饲养层培养牛胚胎干细胞,为牛胚胎干细胞培养体系的建立提供实验依据.用10、15、20、30和40 μg/mL国产丝裂霉素分别处理1.5、3.0和4.0 h的STO细胞;形态学观察不同代次STO细胞生长状态,并对生长在以STO细胞为饲养层的牛胚胎干细胞进行碱性磷酸酶染色(AKP)、阶段特异性胚胎细胞表面抗原-4(OCT-4)和阶段特异性胚胎抗原-1(SSEA-1)免疫组化检测、体外分化形成拟胚体等实验.结果显示,当丝裂霉素的浓度为15 μg/mL处理3.0 h可有效的抑制细胞分裂;STO细胞在5～10代作为饲养层细胞形态最好且获得的牛胚胎干细胞AKP染色及OCT-4和SSEA-1抗原表达均成阳性,分别在体外分化培养形成了拟胚体.结果证明使用国产丝裂霉素能有效地处理STO细胞且在以STO细胞作为饲养层培养的牛胚胎干细胞能保持未分化状态,可以作为常规饲养层培养牛胚胎干细胞.     

鸡胚精原干细胞定向诱导分化为脂肪细胞

研究体外定向诱导鸡胚精原干细胞(spetmatogonial stem cells,SSCs)向脂肪细胞分化的能力.取孵化16 d的鸡(Gallus gallus)胚睾丸,提取SSCs,体外培养和传代.采用不同的诱导程序和不同组合的诱导剂(地塞米松、胰岛素和3-异丁基-1-甲基黄嘌呤(3-isobutyl-1-methylxanthine,IBMX))诱导SSCs向脂肪细胞分化.结果显示,诱导SSCs7～2l d后,分化成脂肪细胞,其中地塞米松、胰岛素和IBMX联合使用3 d后更换为胰岛素作用l d,经过3次循环后,用胰岛素继续处理至21 d,这一方法的诱导分化效果较好,分化率为85%.高于诱导剂联合协同作用的诱导效果(P<0.01).同时诱导剂联合作用协同作用的诱导效果高于单独作用的诱导效果(P<0.01).诱导的脂肪细胞经特异性的油红O染色为阳性,并高表达脂肪细胞标志基因PPARγ.表明SSCs体外培养传代后仍具有多向分化潜能,在特异性化学物质的诱导下,可被定向诱导分化为脂肪细胞.     

过量表达热休克蛋白C端相互作用蛋白(CHIP)抑制小鼠前成骨细胞系的分化和矿化

以MC3T3-E1细胞系为材料,体外转染pEFNeu-HA-CHIP质粒,Western blot检测热休克蛋白Hs70(HSP70)C端相互作用蛋白(CHIP)表达,建立了稳定过量表达CHIP蛋白的MC3T3-E1/HA-CHIP细胞系.然后用含10 mol/L甘油磷酸钠和50靏/mL抗坏血酸的条件培养基诱导MC3T3-E1和MC3T3-E1/HA-CHIP细胞系向成骨细胞定向分化,结果表明,诱导期MC3T3-E1/HA-CHIP细胞系中碱性磷酸酶(ALP)的活性比MC3T3-E1细胞中的ALP活性低,ALP染色实验同时证实了这个结果;诱导培养18d后,Von Kossa染色和茜素红染色结果表明,MC3T3-E1/HA-CHIP细胞系中生成的磷酸钙比MC3T3-E1细胞系中生成的磷酸钙少.结果提示,过量表达CHIP蛋白抑制MC3T3-E1细胞的分化和矿化.     

鸡胚精原干细胞定向诱导分化为脂肪细胞的研究

为研究体外定向诱导鸡胚精原干细胞（Spermatogonial stem cells, SSCs）向脂肪细胞分化的能力，取孵化16d的鸡胚睾丸，无菌获取SSCs，体外培养传代。采用不同诱导程序、不同组合的诱导剂（地塞米松、胰岛素、3-异丁基-1-甲基黄嘌呤（IBMX））诱导SSCs向脂肪细胞分化。结果显示SSCs被诱导7～21d后，分化成脂肪细胞，其中诱导程序⑥的诱导分化效果较好，分化率为85%。诱导剂联合协同作用的诱导效果极显著地(P<0.01)高于单独作用的诱导效果。诱导的脂肪细胞经特异性的油红O染色为阳性，并高表达脂肪细胞标志基因PPARγ。表明鸡胚胎精原干细胞（SSCs）体外培养传代后仍具有多向分化潜能，在特异性化学物质的诱导下，可被定向诱导分化为脂肪细胞。     

培养的睾丸间质细胞对hCG刺激的反应性

本文介绍了用酶解法结合差速离心分离仔猪睾丸间质细胞,并研究其对促性腺激素的反应性。结果表明在0～50IUml内,睾酮的分泌量随着hCG剂量的增加而增加,在50IUml～100IUml内,加大hCG剂量并不能增强间质细胞的分泌功能。研究还发现随着培养时间的延长,间质细胞分泌睾酮的功能逐渐减低,培养1d和2d时对hCG(人绒毛膜促性腺激素)刺激的反应能力最强;随着培养时间的进一步延长,间质细胞的反应性下降,4d时与对照无明显差异(P>0.05)。间质细胞对首次刺激的反应敏感,当连续给予刺激时,睾酮的分泌受到抑制,在24h的分泌峰后不再出现分泌高峰。而首次刺激后间隔2d再刺激,间质细胞虽有反应,但反应较弱。     

低氮和干旱胁迫对富士和秦冠生长及氮素利用的影响

【目的】以富士（Fuji）、 秦冠（Qinguan）嫁接在平邑甜茶（Malus hupehensis Rehd.）上的当年生盆栽苗为试验材料,采用砂培方法,研究了缺氮胁迫和干旱对富士和秦冠生长情况、 光合参数、 植株各部位氮磷钾含量及氮素利用效率的影响,分析比较了低氮干旱条件下富士和秦冠生长及氮素利用的差异,以期为果树生产高效肥水利用提供理论指导。【方法】试验共设四个处理: 正常氮正常水（ZZ）、 低氮正常水（DZ）、 正常氮干旱（ZG）、 低氮干旱（DG）。氮素和水分均设置两个水平,分别为正常氮（6 mmol/L NO-3-N）、 低氮（0.3 mmol/LNO-3-N）、 正常供水（保持盆中砂子相对含水量为饱和含水量的80%~85%）、 干旱处理（保持盆中砂子相对含水量为饱和含水量的60%~65%）。【结果】富士和秦冠的生物量（茎和叶）、 株高茎粗等生长指标以及光合速率、 气孔导度、 蒸腾速率均为正常氮正常水（ZZ）＞低氮正常水（DZ）＞正常氮干旱（ZG）＞低氮干旱（DG）,并且相对应处理下秦冠的以上指标均高于富士;正常供水下,缺氮处理使富士、 秦冠的根冠比比正常氮处理均有所增加,富士提高了2.05%,秦冠提高了22.40%。富士和秦冠的氮、 磷、 钾含量均表现出正常氮正常水（ZZ）＞低氮正常水（DZ）＞正常氮干旱（ZG）＞低氮干旱（DG）; 氮、 钾元素含量在植株各部位的分布顺序依次是叶＞根＞茎,磷元素则是根＞叶＞茎;光合氮素利用效率（PNUE）和氮素利用效率表现为秦冠处理之间差异极显著,富士处理之间差异不显著;秦冠的PNUE和NUE明显高于富士,在低氮正常水（DZ）处理下,秦冠氮肥利用率比富士高42.07%,在低氮干旱（DG）处理下高64.14%;低氮胁迫下富士和秦冠的NUE显著提高,并且秦冠提高的幅度高于富士。【结论】施用氮肥能够显著提高富士与秦冠的干物质量,同等水肥条件下,秦冠生长优于富士;水分亏缺会减少叶片对氮的吸收,干旱条件下适度增施氮肥,可提高果树的抗旱能力;低氮干旱胁迫下秦冠的生长指标、 光合指标及氮素利用效率指标均优于富士,表现出较强的抗低氮干旱胁迫的能力。     

Pasture Vegetation Elemental Analysis by Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy

Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) is a new technique for the analysis of plant material. This study investigates the application of LIBS to pasture-based plant samples. The LIBS measurements were obtained from pelletized pasture samples (100 samples) that had been also analyzed by inductively coupled plasma–optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES) following microwave digestion for calibration and comparison purposes. Comparisons for elements sodium (Na), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), boron (B), phosphorus (P), and sulfur (S) showed that LIBS could be used for almost all the standard profile total elements with concentrations down to low mg/kg levels (observed error of Na: 0.024 percent, K: 0.18 percent, Mg: 0.016 percent, Ca: 0.073 percent, P: 0.017 percent, Mn: 31 mg/kg, Fe: 150 mg/kg, Zn: 6.6 mg/kg, and B: 1.1 mg/kg). Elemental analysis at less than mg/kg levels was not possible using LIBS. The elements S and Cu were particularly difficult to analyze with reliability using LIBS at the concentration levels found in the plant samples. Replacing microwave digestion and subsequent ICP analysis with a direct analysis of dried plant samples using LIBS has the potential to improve the productivity and reduce the cost of testing.     

Faculty positions:Center for Agricultural Resources Research,Chinese Academy of Sciences

正The Center for Agricultural Resources Research(CARR),the Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology(IGDB),Chinese Academy of Sciences,invites applicants for several research group leader positions.CARR is one of the research organizations in Chinese Academy of Sciences(CAS).We seek nominations and applications from individuals who have expertise and a record of accomplishment in research areas related to ecology,agro-hydrology,     

Macroinvertebrates in North American tallgrass prairie soils: effects of fire, mowing, and fertilization on density and biomass

The responses of tallgrass prairie plant communities and ecosystem processes to fire and grazing are well characterized. However, responses of invertebrate consumer groups, and particularly soil-dwelling organisms, to these disturbances are not well known. At Konza Prairie Biological Station, we sampled soil macroinvertebrates in 1994 and 1999 as part of a long-term experiment designed to examine the effects and interactions of annual fire, mowing, and fertilization (N and P) on prairie soil communities and processes. For nearly all taxa, in both years, responses were characterized by significant treatment interactions, but some general patterns were evident. Introduced European earthworms (Aporrectodea spp. and Octolasion spp.) were most abundant in plots where fire was excluded, and the proportion of the total earthworm community consisting of introduced earthworms was greater in unburned, unmowed, and fertilized plots. Nymphs of two Cicada genera were collected (Cicadetta spp. and Tibicen spp.). Cicadetta nymphs were more abundant in burned plots, but mowing reduced their abundance. Tibicen nymphs were collected almost exclusively from unburned plots. Treatment effects on herbivorous beetle larvae (Scarabaeidae, Elateridae, and Curculionidae) were variable, but nutrient additions (N or P) usually resulted in greater densities, whereas mowing usually resulted in lower densities. Our results suggest that departures from historical disturbance regimes (i.e. frequent fire and grazing) may render soils more susceptible to increased numbers of European earthworms, and that interactions between fire, aboveground biomass removal, and vegetation responses affect the structure and composition of invertebrate communities in tallgrass prairie soils.     

Variation in quality parameters between and within 14 Nordic tree fruit and berry species

Abstract

A 3-year study was carried out to investigate quality parameters in 14 tree fruit and berry species grown in southern Norway. The species were blueberry, apple, aronia, sour cherry, sweet cherry, red raspberry, strawberry, blackcurrant, gooseberry, red currant and elderberry, harvested along with wild bilberry, cloudberry and lingonberry. Significant differences between species were identified for all quality parameters. The coefficient of variation between species was lowest for pH (12.5%), dry matter (18.9%) and soluble solids (25.3%), followed by titratable acids (59.3%), total phenolics (83.8%), antioxidant capacity FRAP (85.7%) and antiradical power by the DPPH-assay (97.8%), total monomeric anthocyanins (132%) and ascorbic acid (137%). Average coefficient of variation within species were lower and ranged from 4 (pH) to 62% (ascorbic acid). Only the FRAP values were significantly affected by harvesting year with lower levels in 2004 than in 2005 and 2006. There were significant interactions between species and harvesting year for dry matter, soluble solids, pH, ascorbic acid and FRAP. The results indicate generic ranges in composition within species independent upon growing location and climate, and the composition of the tree fruits and berries is not likely to deviate from these ranges. It is concluded that desirable composition of tree fruits and berries and their products should primarily be achieved by selection among species rather than searching fors broadened variation within individual species.     

Potassium Fixation and Release Characteristics in Rhizosphere and Nonrhizosphere Soils for a Rapeseed–Rice Cropping Sequence

Potassium (K) fixation and release in soil are important factors in the long-term sustainability of a cropping system. Changes in K concentration and characteristics of K fixation and release in rhizosphere and nonrhizosphere soils in the rapeseed (Brassica napus L.)–rice (Oryza sativa L.) rotation were investigated using a rhizobox system. The concentrations of different forms of K in both rhizosphere and nonrhizosphere soils decreased with plants compared to without plants, regardless of K fertilizer application. Potassium uptake by crops mainly came from the rhizosphere soil. In the treatment without K fertilizer (–K), the main form of K supplied by the soil to the crops was 1.0 mol L^?1 nitric acid (HNO₃) nonextractable K, followed by nonexchangeable K, and then exchangeable K. In the treatment with K fertilizer (+K), the main K forms supplied by the soil to the crops were exchangeable K and nonexchangeable K. The amount and rate of K fixation after one cycle of the rapeseed–rice rotation was greater in rhizosphere soil than in nonrhizosphere soil. The amount and rate of K fixation of soil in the +K treatment were significantly less than in the –K treatment. The cumulative amounts of K released with 1.0 mol L^?1 ammonium acetate (NH₄OAc) and 1.0 mol L^?1 HNO₃ extraction increased with the increasing numbers of extractions, but the K-releasing power of soil by successive extraction decreased gradually and finally became almost constant. The release of K was less in rhizosphere soil than in nonrhizosphere soil. The release of K in the +K treatment was similar to that in the –K treatment in rhizosphere soil, but the K release in nonrhizosphere soil was greater with the +K than the –K treatment. Overall, the information obtained in this study will be helpful in formulating more precise K fertilizer recommendations for certain soils.     

Electron donor and pH relationships for biologically enhanced dissolution of chlorinated solvent DNAPL in groundwater

Biologically enhanced dissolution offers a method to speed removal of chlorinated solvent dense non-aqueous-phase liquid (DNAPL) sources such as tetrachloroethene (PCE) and trichoroethene (TCE) from aquifers. Bioremediation is accomplished by adding an electron donor to the source zone where fermentation to intermediates leading to acetic acid and hydrogen results. The hydrogen and possibly acetic acid are used by dehalogenating bacteria to convert PCE and TCE to ethene and hydrochloric acid. Reductive dehalogenation is thus an acid forming process, and sufficient alkalinity must be present to maintain a near neutral pH. The bicarbonate alkalinity required to maintain pH above 6.5 is a function of the electron donor: 800 mg/L of bicarbonate alkalinity is sufficient to achieve about 1.2 mM TCE dechlorination with glucose, 1.7 mM with lactate, and a much higher 3.3 mM with formate. Laboratory studies indicate that in mixed culture, formate can be used as an electron donor for complete conversion to ethene, contrary to pure cultures studies indicating it cannot. Various strategies can be used to add electron donor to an aquifer for DNAPL dehalogenation while minimizing pH problems and excessive electron donor usage, including use of injection-extraction wells, dual recirculation wells, and nested injection-extraction wells.     

Biodiversity and ecogeography of wild Lactuca spp. in some European countries

Staff members of the Department of Botany of Palacký University in Olomouc and Gene Bank Department – Workplace Olomouc, Research Institute of Crop Production in Prague, Czech Republic, conducted an expedition in seven European countries (Austria, Czech Republic, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Switzerland) in August/September 1999 to collect wild Lactuca spp. germplasm and study its geographic distribution, ecology and biodiversity. During the mission, more than 600 locations were visited resulting in the collection of 602 seed samples (accessions) of wild Lactuca species and 13 seed samples of related genera (Chondrilla and Mycelis). Lactuca serriola f. serriola, L. serriola f. integrifolia, L. saligna and L. viminea subsp. chondrilliflora were prevalent in southern Europe (Italy, France), however, only L. serriola was common in central and western Europe (Austria, Czech Republic, Germany, Netherlands, Switzerland). The greatest diversity of Lactuca species was found in France, where also the most seed samples (165) were collected. The most characteristic habitats with a high density of Lactuca spp. populations were observed along roads and highways, grassy ditches, ruderal communities, and dust-heaps. Natural infections by powdery mildew (Erysiphe cichoracearum) and downy mildew (Bremia lactucae) on some wild Lactuca spp. were observed. Recent observations concerning the geographic distribution, population structure, habitats, and natural occurrence of diseases of Lactuca spp. are discussed. This assemblage of genetic resources of Lactuca spp. can serve as the basis of future studies of species diversification, spatial population structure, plant microevolution, domestication processes, and genetic variability of host-parasite interactions.     

Increase in auxiliary photoprotective photosynthetic pigments in wheat seedlings induced by Azospirillum brasilense

Inoculation of wheat seedlings with the plant growth-promoting bacterium Azospirillum brasilense Cd was immobilized in alginate microbeads and, without applying any stress, significantly increased the quantity of several photosynthetic pigments, such as chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and the auxiliary photoprotective pigments violaxanthin, zeaxanthin, antheroxanthin, lutein, neoxanthin, and β-carotene. This resulted in greener plants with no apparent visible stress. After monitoring the quantity of photosynthetic pigments for 4 weeks, we observed that inoculated plants had higher quantities of pigments in shoot and stem. The greatest difference in the quantity of all pigments between inoculated and noninoculated plants occurred in the first week of growth. Regardless of treatment, the quantity of pigments in stems was three to four times less than the quantity of these pigments in shoots. Application of Azospirillum, either as liquid inoculant or as alginate microbeads, did not alter the positive effect of the bacteria on pigment production or the positive response of the plants towards A. brasilense Cd inoculation.     

In-situ enrichment and analysis of atrazine-degrading microbial communities using atrazine-containing porous beads

We examined the community composition of microbes that colonized atrazine-containing beads buried in agricultural soils that differed in atrazine treatment history. Bacterial abundance was 5-40-fold greater in atrazine-fortified beads. In beads containing 20 mg atrazine kg⁻¹ buried in soil with a history of atrazine application (conditioned soil), the abundance of Actinobacteria increased approximately 80-fold whereas in control soil, Actinobacteria were enriched only 10-fold and the gamma-Proteobacteria and Planctomycetes increased by 60- and 25-fold, respectively. The gamma-Proteobacteria were enriched by 120- and 230-fold in beads containing 200 mg atrazine kg⁻¹ in conditioned and control soil, respectively. The results demonstrate that BioSep^® beads are a suitable matrix for recruiting a diverse subset of the bacterial community involved in atrazine degradation.