The influence of algal concentration and body size on filtration and ingestion rates of the clam Tapes decussatus (L.) (Mollusca: Bivalvia)

The filtration and ingestion rates of Tapes decussatus (L.) (12.5-32.5 mm in size), collected from Timsah Lake, Suez Canal, Egypt in 1993, were determined in relation to food concentration and clam dry tissue weight. Suspensions of the unicellular green alga Dunaliella marina, in concentrations ranging from 10³ to 10⁵ cells ml^-1, were provided as food. The filtration rate (F, ml h^-1 clam ^-1) and the weight-specific filtration rate (F“, ml h^-1 mg^-1 dry tissue weight) generally decreased with increased algal concentration following the allometric equations F= 2736.8 W^-0,183 and F’= 12.6 W^-0.182 The amount of water filtered free of particles by a clam of 210 mg dry tissue weight was in the ratio 1:1.4:2.3 with decreasing algal concentrations at 10⁵, 10⁴ and 10³ cells ml^-1, respectively. In contrast, the ingestion rate (I, cells h^-1 clam^-1) and weight-specific ingestion rate (I“, cells h^-1 mg^-1 dry tissue weight), generally increased with increased algal cell concentration following the allometric equations I= 0.01 W^0.87 and I= 0.005 W^0.88, where W is the algal cell concentration per ml. When the clams were fed on 10⁵ cells ml^-1, F and I increased with increased body size following the equations F = 7.5 W^0.74 and I“= 8.89 W^0.63. Otherwise, F“ and I“ decreased with increased body size following the equations F“ 7.5 W^-0.25 and I“ 698.6 W^-0.36, where W is the dry tissue weight in mg.     

Influence of incubation temperature on body movements of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua L.) embryos and on size at hatch

Body movements of cod (Gadus morhua L.) embryos reared from fertilization to hatch at 5.4°C were observed at various stages of development and at six experimental temperatures ranging from 0–10°C. Frequency of cod embryo body movements increased from zero at 42 degree‐days post fertilization to maximal at 73–82 degree‐days (1 or 2 days prior to hatch). Embryos were most active at 2°C (mean of 5.5 movements per 10 min), with activity declining to less than 1/10 min at 8–10°C. Lengths of hatched cod larvae reared at a series of constant temperatures (from 4–10°C) from fertilization to hatch were greater at lower incubation temperatures. Incubation temperatures of 2–4°C were found to be optimal for incubation of cod eggs.     

Evaluation of microalgae and industrial cheese whey as diets for Tapes decussatus (L.) seed: effects on water quality, growth, survival, condition and filtration rate

As reference diets for bivalve molluscs are missing, this study first evaluated the best mixed algal diet (Tetraselmis suecica Butch/Phaeodactylum tricornutum Bohlin) concentration for 4‐mm‐length Tapes decussatus (L.) clams. It also assessed the performance of an industrial by‐product (cheese whey) as a single diet or supplement for the best algal ration previously determined. Growth, survival, condition index and filtration rate were used to compare the different diets. Implications of rations tested on rearing water quality were also investigated, especially ammonium and heterotrophic bacteria levels. With a food concentration as algal dry weight per total seed live weight of 0.7% day^?1, seed for grow‐out (7 mm) could be obtained within 1 month. A mixture of 25% algal ration and 75% cheese whey gave the best performances. Artificial diets resulted in lower growth rates than live food (20 % to 40% of the best algal ration), but could be considered good maintenance rations in energetic terms. Using cheese whey, and without any algae, hatchery produced seed can be kept economically indoors for at least 30 days without loss in condition.     

温度和规格对波纹巴非蛤耗氧率和排氨率的影响

本研究以波纹巴非蛤为实验材料,比较了温度和规格对其耗氧率和排氨率的影响。实验温度设为15、20、25和30℃,设立了大（A）和小（B）两种规格,其壳长分别为4.35 ± 0.19 cm 和3.53 ± 0.15 cm。结果表明温度对耗氧率和排氨率存在显著影响（P < 0.05）。规格对耗氧率存在显著影响（P > 0.05）,而对排氨率影响不显著（P > 0.05）。在温度15 - 30℃之间,波纹巴非蛤的耗氧率随温度升高而增大。在15和20℃条件下,B组的耗氧率显著大于A组（P < 0.05）;在25和30℃条件下,B组的耗氧率大于A组,但差异不显著（P > 0.05）。在温度15 - 30℃之间,波纹巴非蛤的排氨率随温度升高而增大。在各温度条件下,两组排氨率没有显著差异（P > 0.05）。     

Effects of body weight, water temperature and ration size on ammonia excretion by the areolated grouper (Epinephelus areolatus) and mangrove snapper (Lutjanus argentimaculatus)

The effects of body weight, water temperature and ration size on ammonia excretion rates of the areolated grouper Epinephelus areolatus and the mangrove snapper Lutjanus argentimaculatus were investigated. Under given experimental conditions, L. argentimaculatus had a higher weight-specific ammonia excretion rate than E. areolatus. Weight-specific ammonia excretion rates of fasted individuals of both species showed an inverse relationship with body weight (W, g wet wt.), but a positive relationship with water temperature (t, °C). The relationships for total ammonia nitrogen (TAN) were: E. areolatus: TAN (mg N kg⁻¹ d⁻¹)=21.4·exp^0.11t·W^−0.43 (r²=0.919, n=60); L. argentimaculatus: TAN (mg N kg⁻¹ d⁻¹)=121.5·exp^0.12t·W^−0.55 (r²=0.931, n=60). Following feeding, the weight-specific ammonia excretion rate of E. areolatus increased, peaked at 2 to 12 h (depending on temperature), and returned to pre-feeding levels within 24 h. A similar pattern was observed for L. argentimaculatus, with a peak of TAN excretion being found 6 to 12 h after feeding. Stepwise multiple regression analysis indicated that weight-specific TAN excretion rates of both species increased with increasing temperature and ration (R, percent body wt. d⁻¹): E. areolatus: TAN (mg N kg⁻¹ d⁻¹)=22.8·t−28.8·R−378.2 (r²=0.832, n=24); L. argentimaculatus: TAN (mg N kg⁻¹ d⁻¹)=22.9·t−25.4·R−216.4 (r²=0.611, n=24). The effect of body weight on weight-specific postprandial TAN excretion was not significant in either species (p>0.05). This study provides empirical data for estimating ammonia excretion of these two species under varying conditions. This has application for culture management.     

Effect of temperature, stocking density and fish size on the ammonia excretion in palmetto bass (Morone saxatilis×M. chrysops)

Three temperature levels (18, 23 and 28 °C), three stocking density levels (0.72, 1.42 and 2.84 kg m⁻³) and two sizes of groups (averaging 104 and 173 g respectively) were used to conduct experiments on the effect of temperature, stocking density and fish size on the ammonia excretion (AE) of palmetto bass ( Morone saxatilis × M. chrysops ). The AE increased with the increase in temperatures by a significant degree ( P <0.05) among different temperature groups. There appeared to be a tendency towards increase of the AE with increased stocking densities, and significant differences ( P <0.05) were found among stocking groups. The AE of smaller size-group was significantly higher than that of the larger size-group. Diurnal variation of AE in palmetto bass showed that the AE rose greatly to reach a peak at about 4 h after feeding, and to the lowest values at about 24 h post feeding in all of the experimental groups.     

Analysis on individual growth of juvenile carpet shell clams, Tapes decussatus (L.), in three different rearing conditions employed in the Ebro's Delta, Spain

The culture of the carpet shell clams. Tapes decussatus (L.), a high-priced clam is still a very recent activity. Three common methods of culture, culture park. polyculture ponds and trays inside a tank, were tested to assess which one gave better growth. Mean weights, length and width were recorded in order to determine non-isometrical growth. The highest percentage mean weight gain and specific growth was observed for the carpet shells in the polyculture pond (89 x ^10-3 mm day^-1 versus 2.2 x 10^-3 and 3.3 x 10^-3 mm day^-1 in the park and the aquaria, respectively). Despite the lower temperatures, water fertility favoured faster growth of phytoplankton, and therefore, of clams in the pond cultured shells. It is concluded that growth in polyculture ponds with fish and shrimps produces the best results and management.     

Effects of temperature on growth, survival and body composition in larvae of barbel, Barbus barbus (L.)

Barbel larvae were reared for 21 days at 21.0, 24.1, 27.2 or 30.0 °C and fed ad libitum live Artemia nauplii for 16 h a day. The final survival rates exceeded 99 %. The highest mean daily growth rates, amounting to 0.97 mm total length (TL) and 17.3 % body weight (BW), were found at 27.2 °C. The optimum temperature calculated for the growth of larvae was 26.9 °C for TL and 26.5 °C for BW. An increase in water temperature accelerated the development rate to a larger degree than the growth rate. Temperature significantly influenced the final fish body chemical composition. The lowest dry matter content (19.1 %) was found at 24.1 °C. The highest values of ash content were determined for 27.2 and 30.0 °C and were 11.3 and 11.0 % of dry matter, respectively. The fish body caloric value was the highest at 30.0 °C (30.0 J mg^?1). The analysis of changes in the fish body chemical features against the effective day-degrees age scale did not reveal significant influence of temperature. Therefore, the effects of temperature on larval body composition seem to be related mainly to differences in barbel developmental progress at particular temperatures.     

体质量和温度对星洲红鱼耗氧率、排氨率和窒息点的影响

利用实验生态学方法研究了不同温度和体质量对星洲红鱼(Red Tilapia)耗氧率、排氨率和窒息点的影响。结果显示:水温15~35℃时,星洲红鱼的耗氧率、排氨率和窒息点都随着温度的上升而上升,差异显著(P0.05);耗氧率(Ro)、排氨率(RA)与温度(T)的线性回归方程分别为:Ro=0.066 4T+0.008 6(R2=0.969 3)和RA=3.849 4t+3.927 5(R2=0.916 8)。在体重27.50~201.87 g范围内,耗氧率和排氨率随着体重的上升而减小,窒息点随着体重的上升而上升,差异显著(P0.05);耗氧率(Ro)、排氨率(RA)与体质量(W)的线性回归方程分别为:Ro=-0.042 2W+0.312(R2=0.989 6)和RA=-4.281 8 W+26.4(R2=0.988 4)。结果表明,不同温度和体质量对星洲红鱼耗氧率、排氨率和窒息点有明显影响。     

饥饿及恢复投喂对刺参生长、耗氧率和排氨率的影响

在水温(16±1)℃、盐度27.6±0.5、pH值7.5~8.3条件下,将体重为(28.47±2.02)g的刺参Apostichopus japonicus分别饥饿0(空白对照)、5、10、15和20d(分别记为T0、T5、T10、T15和T20)后再饱食投喂至40d。实验结果表明,随着饥饿时间的延长,刺参的耗氧率呈急速下降、上升、再下降的变化规律;排氨率呈先上升、后下降的变化规律;氧氮比呈先下降、后上升的变化规律。饥饿结束时刺参的体重,除T5组外,其余各组均显著小于T0组(P0.05),且各自均有不同程度的下降,耗氧率和排氨率与T0组比较均呈显著性差异(P0.05)。饥饿对刺参O/N比值的影响显著(P0.05),饥饿初期刺参O/N比值平均为10左右,随着饥饿时间的延长,刺参O/N比值降为小于7。实验结束时,各饥饿组刺参的体重和特定生长率均小于T0组(P0.05),除T5组外,各组的耗氧率和排氨率,均未能恢复至T0组水平(P0.05)。可见,饥饿后恢复投喂的刺参不具有补偿生长的特征。     

温度对不同体质量灰海马耗氧率、排氨率及窒息点的影响

为探究温度对不同体质量灰海马耗氧率、排氨率和窒息点的影响,设置13、18、23、28、32℃5个温度梯度,用大(L)、中(M)、小(S)3种体质量分别为(3.63±1.42)、(1.23±0.22)、(0.47±0.24)g的灰海马进行代谢试验.试验结果:在13～32℃范围内,随着水温的升高,灰海马的耗氧率和排氨率呈现...     

Relationship between growth, food conversion, body size, body composition and temperature in the European eel, Anguilla anguilla L.

Abstract. The influence of temperature on growth of European eels, Anguilla anguilla L., of various body sizes was studied. The mean weight of small eels (SE) (0·6g body weight) maintained at 23°C was significantly lower than that of SE maintained at 25°C or 27°C. No significant differences were found at the end of the experimental period between SE maintained at 25 and 27°C. Similar results were obtained among the moderate-size eels (ME) (l·5gbody weight). However, the average weight increase maintained at 25°C was significantly higher than that of large eels (LE) (3·25g body weight) maintained at 23 or 27°C. It seems that the optimum growth temperature for European eels is different at various stages in their growth and development.     

Influence of feeding frequency on growth and size dispersion in Arctic charr Salvelinus alpinus (L.)

Abstract Dominance hierarchy formation in groups of fish is thought to be a major reason for the development of size heterogeneity. The objective of the current experiment was to examine the influence of different feeding frequencies on growth and changes in size distribution in groups of Arctic charr Salvelinus alpinus (L.). The fish were fed equivalent excess rations continuously for 24 h a day, for 2 h twice a day (early morning and evening), for 2 h once a day in the morning or for 2 h once every other day also in the morning. Growth was measured by individual weighing of fish four times during the 130‐day experiment. Coefficient of variation in size within rearing groups was used to assess size dispersion and the possible development of hierarchies within the groups. Feeding frequency did not influence variation in size within groups, and there were no signs of hierarchy formation.     

Gametogenesis and spawning in the carpet-shell clam, Ruditapes decussatus (L.) (Mollusca: Bivalvia), from the Atlantic coast of Morocco

Abstract. Aspects of gametogenesis of the carpet-shell clam, Ruditapes decussatus (L.), in two lagoons on the Atlantic coast of north Morocco were studied during December 1986 to February 1988. The clams sampled did not show any sign of hermaphroditism and the percentage of males was 42%. The gonads started developing in mid-winter and were ripe in spring. Successive spawnings and reconstitution of gametes look place simultaneously starting from May up to the end of September. Two major spawning periods were noticed: a partial one in May-June and a complete spawning in August-September. From October to December the gonads were at resting stages. In coastal ecosystems where freshwater input is a very important factor, gametogenesis may be affected if clams are exposed to low salinities (less than 15%) for prolonged periods.     

Influence of long term ammonia exposure on Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) parr growth and welfare

The objective of this study was to determine the long‐term effects of ambient unionized ammonia nitrogen (NH₃‐N) combined with different feeding regimes on Atlantic salmon Salmo salar L parr growth, welfare and smoltification. Previous studies on the parr stage of Atlantic salmon have mostly focused on acute exposure, or at low temperatures. Atlantic salmon parr were exposed for 105 days (at 12°C, pH 6.8) to four sublethal ammonia concentrations ranging from 0.1 to 35 μg L^?1 NH₃‐N (0.1–25 mg L^?1 TAN) at two feeding levels: full feed strength (+20% overfeeding) and 1/3 of full feed strength. After 21 days, it was observed that 32 μg L^?1 NH₃‐N reduced growth rate of parr fed full ration, but this effect was not evident at the end of the exposure. Feed utilization was not affected by ammonia exposure at any sampling point. Increasing ammonia levels were associated with a higher prevalence and severity of gill damage at 22 days but not at the end of the exposure. The examination of welfare indicators revealed only a few pathologies, not related to ammonia exposure. In addition, higher ammonia concentrations did not appear to influence the development of hypo‐osmoregulatory ability during parr‐smolt transformation.     

温度、盐度和 pH 对鲻幼鱼耗氧率、排氨率以及窒息点的影响

采用封闭流水式实验方法,研究了不同温度(12、16、20、24、28、32℃)、盐度(5、10、15、20、25、30)和pH(7.2、7.7、8.2、8.7、9.2、9.7)对体质量(0.21±0.03)g的鲻(Mugil cephalus)幼鱼耗氧率和排氨率的影响.结果表明,温度(X)对鲻幼鱼耗氧率(Yo)和排氨率(YN)的影响显著,其两两间的相关关系可分别用一元二次方程Yo=-0.0256x2+0.2191X-0.1054(P＜0.05)和YN=-0.0054X2+0.044 1X-0.0082(P＜0.01)表示.随着温度的升高,鲻的耗氧率和排氨率呈现相同的变化趋势,均为先升高后降低,在24℃时,耗氧率和排氨率都达到最大值.经单因素方差分析得出盐度对鲻幼鱼耗氧率的影响极显著(P＜0.01),当盐度在5～30时,随着盐度的升高,耗氧率先下降再升高,然后再下降;排氨率则先升高后降低.经方差检验,盐度对鲻幼鱼排氨率的影响差异极显著,两者之间的相关关系式为YN=-0.0013X2+0.0027X+0.047(P＜0.01).pH对鲻幼鱼耗氧率的影响差异极显著,随着pH的升高,耗氧率呈先升高后下降的趋势,两者之间的关系可用一元二次方程Yo=-0.02583X2+0.198X+0.0775(P＜0.01)表示;pH对鲻排氨率的影响差异极显著,两者之间的相关关系式为YN=-0.0032X2+0.0217X+0.003(P＜0.01).温度和pH对鲻幼鱼窒息点的影响极显著(P＜0.0),盐度对鲻幼鱼窒息点的影响显著(P＜0.05),但对鲻的窒息时间没有显著影响(P＞0.05).     

Effects of pond depth and water temperature on the growth, mortality and body composition of Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus (L.)

The effects of varying water depths and temperature on the growth, feed utilization, mortality rates and body composition of Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus (L.), were evaluated. Triplicate groups of 20 fish (mixed-sex) m^-3 were stocked into 200-m² freshwater earthen ponds maintaining four water depths: 50, 100, 200 and 300 cm. The fish were fed on commercial fish pellets (23% protein), twice a day for 10 months (May 1991-February 1992). Water temperatures ranged from 5 ^oC to 33 ^oC. Growth performance and survival were significantly affected by pond depth and water temperature. Fish weight gain was lowest (250 g per fish), feed conversion poorest (3.15), and mortality highest (41.5%) at 50 cm depth, whereas 100-200 cm depth produced the best growth rates at warm water temperatures (> 21 ^oC). At 100-200 cm depth, weight gain was significantly (P<0.001) increased to 348-362 g per fish, feed conversion improved to 2.53-2.59 (P<0.01) and mortality reduced to 21-27% (P<0.001). Fish growth was significantly reduced (P<0.001) below 21 ^oC. Below 10 ^oC, fish stopped feeding and developed severe stress, fungal infection and high mortality. However, mortality rate was significantly reduced at 300 cm depth. Body lipid and protein were sharply decreased (P<0.001) with decreasing water temperature and pond depth, whereas body ash showed irregular patterns.     

The effect of ammonia on the growth of juvenile Dover sole, Solea solea (L.) and turbot, Scophthalmus maximus (L.)

The growth of sole and turbot was followed in groups of fish exposed to constant unionised ammonia concentrations at pH levels both at and below that of normal sea water. Low pH levels were produced by the addition of carbon dioxide. Results for both species showed evidence for a threshold level of unionised ammonia below which little or no effect on growth was evident. This level was determined to be 0.066 mg N/l for sole and 0.11 mg N/l for turbot at 16°C, 34‰ salinity. The different pH conditions did not have any marked effect on these threshold levels.Above the threshold levels growth appeared to be depressed in a linear manner with increased unionised ammonia. The rate at which growth was depressed was greatest at the low pH levels for both species. The level at which growth ceased thus decreased from 0.77 to 0.38 mg N/l for sole and from 0.9 to 0.3 mg N/l for turbot, over the pH range from 7.9 to 6.9.The absence of disease and gill damage in the experimental populations is discussed. It is suggested that this and the tolerance shown by the fish, which is higher than is generally accepted for fish in high density culture, may be due to the clean environment in which the fish were held while under test.     

The effect of feeding on oxygen consumption and ammonia excretion of juvenile tench Tinca tinca (L.) reared in a water recirculating system

The effect of feeding frequency (one, three, and continuous feeding), feed ration (0.2, 0.5, 0.8% of total fish biomass), and feeding per se on the oxygen consumption (OC, mg O₂ kg⁻¹ h⁻¹) and ammonia excretion (AE, mg TAN kg⁻¹ h⁻¹) of juvenile tench (body weight 15–19 g) and variations in these parameters in daily cycles were examined. Fish metabolism was studied in a recirculating system (rearing tanks of 0.2 m³, water temperature 23 °C). It was found that oxygen consumption and ammonia excretion depended significantly on feed ration. An increase of feed ration from 0.2 to 0.8% of fish biomass caused an increase of OC and AE from 126.80 mg O₂ kg⁻¹ h⁻¹ and 1.95 mg TAN kg⁻¹ h⁻¹ to 187.35 mg O₂ kg⁻¹ h⁻¹ and 8.80 mg TAN kg⁻¹ h⁻¹ (p<0.05). There was no dependence between feeding frequency and the mean rate of oxygen consumption. However, the relationship between feeding frequency and ammonia excretion by juvenile tench was statistically significant (p<0.05). Feeding frequency significantly affected daily fluctuations of AE and OC. It was found that diurnal variations in metabolic rates were strictly related to tench feeding, and the daily variations of AE were significantly higher than OC.     

Size‐related oxygen consumption and ammonia excretion of Eurasian perch (Perca fluviatilis L.) reared in a recirculating system

Oxygen consumption (OC) and ammonia excretion rates (AE) of perch were measured under commercial‐like conditions (temperature 23.3 °C) in both fed (F) and feed‐deprived groups (D). Measurements were taken in triplicate in six sized batches of perch ranging from 44.8 to 336.2 g. The mean daily OC was 288.3–180.6 mg O₂ kg^?1 h^?1 for group F fish ranging in size from 44.8 to 279.4 g body weight. The mean daily AE expressed as total ammonia nitrogen (TAN) was 13.8–5.2 mg TAN kg^?1 h^?1 in the same groups. Daily peaks of OC in group F perch were observed 6 h after the onset of feeding for each size group with relatively stable values up to the end of feeding. Peaks of daily AE in group F perch were observed 10 h after the onset of feeding in each size group, with a rapid decrease up to 16 h after onset. In group D, OC was 181.1–110.5 mg O₂ kg^?1 h^?1 in the weight range 57.9–336.2 g. The daily mean AE was 1.7–0.5 TAN kg^?1 h^?1 in this group. No dramatic peaks of OC and AE were observed in group D perch.