Extending ideas about animal welfare assessment to include ‘quality of life’ and related concepts

Abstract

Ideas within the animal welfare science arena have evolved continuously throughout the last 30 years, and will continue to do so. This paper outlines some of these developments. These included reformulation of the five freedoms concept into the five domains of potential welfare compromise. This accommodated weaknesses in the former by distinguishing between the physical/functional and the mental factors that contribute to an animal's welfare state. This development reflected a rising scientific acceptance that the mental experiences of animals were legitimate foci for study and highlighted that what the animal itself experiences represents its welfare status. Initially, most concepts of animal welfare emphasised predominantly negative subjective experiences, such as thirst, hunger and pain, and negative affective states or feelings including anxiety, fear and boredom, but today positive experiences or emotions such as satiety, vitality, reward, contentment, curiosity and playfulness are also considered to be important. During the same period, the focus shifted from evaluating the impacts of individual mental subjective experiences or emotions towards seeking a more comprehensive, multifactorial understanding. The five domains concept was specifically designed to achieve this. Subsequent notions about quality of life (QoL) had the same objective, and emphasised the importance of positive experiences. However, some approaches to QoL assessment relied heavily on empathetic speculation about what animals may experience subjectively and this raised concerns about inappropriate anthropomorphic projections. Such pitfalls may be minimised when informed personnel rigorously apply objectively based methodologies to QoL assessments limited to a short time frame. It is clear that both formal and somewhat less formal QoL assessments of this type are already used to guide decision-making about the ongoing care and therapeutic management of animals on a daily basis. However, application of the recently introduced concepts of ‘a life not worth living’, ‘a life worth avoiding’, ‘a life worth living’ and ‘a good life’ is problematical, because extending the assessment time scale to the whole of life is attended by a number of as yet unresolved difficulties. Accordingly, their value in the practical management of animals is limited so that, at present, reliance on the minimum standards and recommendations for best practice outlined in codes of practice or welfare will continue to be necessary and worthwhile. Nevertheless, these concepts have value in providing a contextual theme that strongly focuses attention on the promotion of a lifelong QoL with an overall balance that is positive.     

Molecular and serological detection of animal and human vector-borne pathogens in the blood of dogs from Côte d’Ivoire

In Côte d’Ivoire, limited information are available on vector-borne pathogens, their prevalence and distribution. Here, we assess the occurrence and diversity of canine vector-borne diseases (CVBDs) in Abidjan and Yamoussoukro cities. Blood from a total of 123 dogs were tested for Leishmania infantum and Ehrlichia canis antibodies and screened for Leishmania and Trypanosoma spp., Piroplasmida, Filariidae and Anaplasmataceae by PCR and sequencing. Among dogs, 39 % were positive for at least one pathogen. Seroprevalences were: 15.4 % and 12.2 % for L. infantum and E. canis, respectively. DNA of L. infantum and T. congolense (4.1 %), Baabesia vogeli (1.6 %), Filariidae (Dirofilaria immitis, D. repens and Acanthocheilonema reconditum) (10.6 %) has been detected. Anaplasmataceae were detected in (17.1 %) and E. canis was the only identified specie. Co-infections were observed in 13.8 % of dogs: E. canis-L. infantum co-infection was the most prevalent (4.9 %). Age, breed and sex of dogs do not seem to influence infections. Village dogs were more susceptible to CVBDs than kennel dogs (PV = 0.0000008). This study reports for the first time the presence of L. infantum, B. vogeli, A. reconditum, D. immitis and D. repens in dogs from Côte d’Ivoire and determines the prevalence and diversity of CVBD pathogens. The results indicate that human and animal pathogens are abundant in Ivoirian dogs which requires attention of veterinarians, physicians and authorities against these diseases, especially against major zoonosis such as visceral leishmaniasis (L. infantum).     

Behavioral and cardiac responses by dogs to physical human–dog contact

Measures of behavioral responses and cardiovascular parameters to evaluate and assess animal well-being are well established. A major aspect of companion animal well-being seems to originate from direct human–animal interaction. For pet dogs, the manner in which they obtain and respond to petting and hugs could interfere with the development of a pleasant human–dog companionship. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to evaluate cardiovascular responses by dogs to physical human–dog contact and to assess these physiological responses in relation to the dogs' behavioral responses. Noninvasive measurements of privately owned dogs' (N = 28) cardiovascular parameters and behavioral responses were carried out during 9 physical human–dog interactions (e.g., petting the dog on its back, holding a forepaw of the dog). The behavioral responses were grouped in categories, for example, redirected behavior, displacement activity, and appeasement gesture. The mean heart rate (HR) and 2 cardiac activity parameters, standard deviation of normal-to-normal R–R intervals (SDNN) and root mean square of successive heartbeat interval differences/SDNN (RMSSD/SDNN) ratio, differed significantly among the human–dog interactions. Petting and holding the dog around the head was associated with an increased SDNN. An increased vagal tone was the dogs' responses to being petted at the chest. Displacement activities correlated negatively with all cardiovascular parameters (HR, SDNN, RMSSD, and RMSSD/SDNN ratio). Appeasement gestures were positively correlated with HR and occurred less under an increased vagal tone. The behavioral strategies, that is, freezing (standing motionless with all legs on the floor) and withdrawal (moving backward without any agonistic display) were negatively associated with the cardiac activity parameters, RMSSD and RMSSD/SDNN ratio. The dogs' behavioral and physiological responses suggest that some common physical human–dog interactions perceived as unpleasant by dogs. Emphasis on human signaling in human–dog interactions encourages development of recommendations for pleasant and safe human–dog contact to enhance dogs' well-being and the human–dog relationship.     

Comparison of lidocaine and lidocaine–epinephrine for the paravertebral brachial plexus block in dogs

Objective

To compare the motor and sensory block efficacy and duration of a modified paravertebral brachial plexus block (PBPB) after administration of lidocaine alone (LI) or combined with epinephrine (LE).

The use of deslorelin acetate (Suprelorin®) in companion animal medicine

In 2009 Suprelorin? was released in Switzerland for the temporary suppression of fertility in male dogs. However, in practice it has also been used to treat other conditions in male dogs and in bitches. These include treatment of benign hyperplasia of the prostate, the induction or suppression of oestrus and treatment for the side effects of gonadectomy. Also in feline reproductive medicine GnRH-agonists gain increased importance. These areas of application are listed here in terms of treatment success and possible adverse effects after treatment of which owners have to be informed beforehand.     

The evolution of the natriuretic peptides – Current applications in human and animal medicine

Although natriuretic peptides have played an important role in the fluid homeostasis of vertebrates for over several million years, their importance has only been noticed in the last few decades. Yet, the family of natriuretic peptides have since their discovery, drawn the attention of a broad spectrum of physicians and researchers involved in the maintenance of fluid homeostasis, including marine biologists, basic scientists, physicians and veterinarians.While all natriuretic peptides share a common phylogenetic background, due to differences in receptor-binding affinities, they have evolved into different hormones with clear distinct functions.B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP) is the most studied member of the natriuretic peptide family, and together with its cleavage equivalent amino-terminal proB-type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) these peptides have emerged as important cardiovascular serum markers. However, since their introduction, physicians involved in human or animal medicine have faced common but also different challenges in order to optimally interpret the diagnostic and prognostic value of these novel cardiovascular biomarkers.     

Publication rate of exotic companion mammal conference abstracts and influencing factors: 2011–2015

Background: Abstracts presented during scientific conferences enable the early dissemination of scientific and evidence-based information. The expected outcome of the data presented in these abstracts is publication in peer-reviewed journals. However, numerous studies evaluated publication rates in human and veterinary medicine, and showed more than half of the abstracts did not reach publication. Methods: Conferences abstracts regarding exotic companion mammals from the Association of Exotic Mammal Veterinarians Conference and the International Conference on Avian Herpetological and Exotic Mammal Medicine of the years 2011 to 2015 were included and searched in scientific databases for peer-reviewed publication. The time course of subsequent full publication and factors affecting publication probability were analyzed. Results: The results showed that 34.3% of abstracts were published in peer-reviewed journals. Several factors were associated with increased publication rate: presence of academic, PhD holder or board-certified authors, and experimental or observational prospective studies. The median time of publication from the date of the conference was 14.6 months. Differences in results between abstract and peer-reviewed publication were rare. Conclusions: This study revealed a low abstract-to-publication ratio in exotic companion mammal medicine, similar to most studies in other veterinary disciplines. Factors associated with higher publication rates did not differ from those identified in other fields, and may help to evaluate to probability of subsequent publication of abstracts. Nonpublication and differences in outcomes between abstracts and publications encourage to take precautions when using data presented during conferences.     

Intratesticular and incisional line infiltration with ropivacaine for castration in medetomidine–butorphanol–midazolam sedated dogs

Objective

To evaluate whether intratesticular and incisional ropivacaine infiltration produces sufficient intra- and postoperative analgesia for castrating dogs under sedation.

Comparison of sedative and some cardiopulmonary effects of intramuscular medetomidine or medetomidine–tramadol in dogs

ObjectiveTo evaluate the clinical and physiologic effects of intramuscular (IM) administration of medetomidine with and without tramadol in dogs.Study designProspective experimental study.AnimalsA group of eight mixed breed dogs of both sexes, aged 1–2 years, weighing 16.0 ± 0.6 kg.MethodsEach dog was studied twice at ≥1 week interval. Medetomidine (5 μg kg^–1; treatment M) was administered IM alone or with tramadol (4 mg kg^–1; treatment MT). Sedation was scored by a system that included vocalization, posture, appearance, interactive behaviors, resistance to restraint and response to noise. Times from drug administration to ataxia, impaired walking, head drop, sternal and lateral position and standing were recorded. Sedation score, heart rate, respiratory rate, rectal temperature, end-tidal carbon dioxide (Pe′CO₂), hemoglobin oxygen saturation and mean noninvasive blood pressure were recorded and compared 15 minutes before and 15, 30 and 45 minutes after drug administration.ResultsDogs administered MT had higher sedation scores than dogs administered M at 30 and 45 minutes after drug administration (p < 0.05). Times to ataxia, impaired walking, head drop and sternal recumbency were not different between the treatments. Time to lateral recumbency was longer in M than in MT (21.1 ± 1.0 versus 17.6 ± 0.7 minutes, respectively; p < 0.05). Time to standing was longer in MT than in M (67.9 ± 1.4 versus 54.5 ± 1.9 minutes, respectively; p < 0.001). Measured physiological variables did not differ between the treatments, with the exception of Pe′CO₂, which was higher in MT than in M at all post-treatment evaluation times (p < 0.001).Conclusions and clinical relevanceTramadol combined with medetomidine resulted in greater sedation scores (deeper sedation) than medetomidine alone in dogs, and minimal adverse changes in the physiologic variables were measured.     

Validation of a Polar® human heart rate monitor for measuring heart rate and heart rate variability in adult dogs under stationary conditions

Heart rate variability (HRV) is considered to be a measure of autonomic regulation of cardiac activity for assessing stress and welfare in animals. Polar^® human heart rate monitors are frequently used in animal studies to measure HRV and have been validated for this use in cows, pigs, and horses. Although Polar^® monitors have been used in canine research to measure cardiac activity, we know of no studies that have tested its validity in dogs. Our objectives were as follows: (1) to collect interbeat interval (IBI) data while simultaneously using a Polar^® heart rate monitor and an electrocardiogram (ECG) monitor in awake healthy dogs under stationary conditions; (2) to compare Polar^® data with ECG data and examine whether any errors occurred in the Polar^® data; and (3) to assess the validity of these Polar^® data for recording time- and frequency-domain HRV data in dogs. IBI data from the Polar^® RS800CX monitor and a telemetric ECG monitor, the Televet 100, were recorded simultaneously for 5 continuous minutes in 10 adult beagles. The Polar^® data were compared with the ECG data to identify possible interbeat anomalies, such as those previously identified in pigs and horses. Statistical comparisons for a variety of time and frequency domain parameters (i.e., mean heart rate [ms], mean IBI [ms], R-R max [ms], R-R min [ms], standard deviation, total variance [ms²], and root mean square of successive differences) were performed. Time and frequency domain parameters from the Polar^® data were not significantly different from ECG data. The mean heart rate from the Polar^® data was 123.98 bpm (range: 101.57-138.35 bpm) and from ECG data was 123.33 bpm (range: 101.57-135.08 bpm). Bland–Altman analysis was used to measure the level of agreement between the 2 data sets. The mean difference between ECG and Polar^® data was 0.42 ms (limits of agreement: ?126.76 to 127.60 ms); more than 95% of the differences fell between these limits. We conclude that the Polar^® RS800CX digital R-R heart rate monitor is a promising instrument to reliably measure HRV in dogs under stationary conditions.     

Problems at the human–horse interface and prospects for smart textile solutions

The significant potential for so-called “smart textiles” in the design of the next generation of devices that measure pressure, tension, moisture, and heat at the human–horse interface is discussed in this article. Research techniques from theoretical and experimental physics laboratories, combined with wireless technology, can be readily adapted to measure and store metrics for numerous variables in equine structure and function. Activities, such as breathing, the extension and flexion of joints, limb kinematics, and cardiac function, can be logged as indicators of physiological and behavioral conditioning (training). Such metrics may also, one day, support veterinary diagnostics but also play a role in safeguarding sport-horse welfare, especially in elite contexts where the horse may be pushed to its functional limits. As such, they are likely to emerge as an area of great interest to equitation and welfare scientists. It is important to note that smart textiles sense and react to exogenous stimuli via integrated sensors. So, beyond the equitation science laboratory, the emergence of polymers and smart materials may enhance the effectiveness of, or challenge us to completely rethink, traditional items of saddlery, thus improving equitation. The integration of smart textiles in all sorts of extant and emergent equipment for everyday equestrians could, in the future, lead to equipment that responds appropriately to the demands of equitation in its various forms. Rethinking equitation through physics and the use of smart textiles seems to have merit in that it is a novel means of both investigating and addressing problems that compromise the welfare and performance of horses. The purpose of this article is to envision the use of smart textiles in research, clinical, equestrian, and horse care contexts.     

Effect of fermented corn–soybean meal on carcass and meat quality of grower-finisher pigs

The fermented feed has been identified as a potential alternative to antibiotics in feeds that markedly affects gut health and growth performance of pigs. Two recent studies performed in our laboratory investigated that the fermented corn–soybean meal (fermented feed, FF) improved the gut health of pigs. This study was conducted to determine the effect of a FF on the carcass, meat quality, muscle fatty acids profile, muscle amino acid and antioxidant ability of grower-finisher pigs. In this study, a total of 48 crossbred barrows (Duroc × Landrace × Large White) were randomly divided into 2 treatments with unfermented corn–soybean diet (Ctrl) and FF diet. Compared with control pigs fed a standard diet, the results showed that FF significantly increased the muscle colour of redness and significantly reduced muscle moisture loss rate. Furthermore, FF significantly increased the content of aromatic amino acids such as aspartic acid, glutamic acid and alanine. More importantly, FF increased monounsaturated fatty acid and polyunsaturated fatty acid content. Collectively, FF could be a promising feed strategy in improving meat quality and nutritional value in grower-finisher pig.     

Cardiovascular effects of dobutamine,norepinephrine and phenylephrine in isoflurane-anaesthetized dogs administered dexmedetomidine–vatinoxan

ObjectiveTo determine whether dobutamine, norepinephrine or phenylephrine infusions alleviate hypotension in isoflurane-anaesthetized dogs administered dexmedetomidine with vatinoxan.Study designBalanced, randomized crossover trial.AnimalsA total of eight healthy Beagle dogs.MethodsEach dog was anaesthetized with isoflurane (end-tidal isoflurane 1.3%) and five treatments: dexmedetomidine hydrochloride (2.5 μg kg^–1) bolus followed by 0.9% saline infusion (DEX-S); dexmedetomidine and vatinoxan hydrochloride (100 μg kg^–1) bolus followed by an infusion of 0.9% saline (DEX-VAT-S), dobutamine (DEX-VAT-D), norepinephrine (DEX-VAT-N) or phenylephrine (DEX-VAT-P). The dexmedetomidine and vatinoxan boluses were administered at baseline (T0) and the treatment infusion was started after 15 minutes (T15) if mean arterial pressure (MAP) was < 90 mmHg. The treatment infusion rate was adjusted every 5 minutes as required. Systemic haemodynamics were recorded at T0 and 10 (T10) and 45 (T45) minutes. A repeated measures analysis of covariance model was used.ResultsMost dogs had a MAP < 70 mmHg at T0 before treatment. Treatments DEX-S and DEX-VAT all significantly increased MAP at T10, but systemic vascular resistance index (SVRI) was significantly higher and cardiac index (CI) lower after DEX-S than after DEX-VAT. CI did not significantly differ between DEX-S and DEX-VAT-S at T45, while SVRI remained higher with DEX-S. Normotension was achieved by all vasoactive infusions in every dog, whereas MAP was below baseline with DEX-VAT-S, and higher than baseline with DEX-S at T45. Median infusion rates were 3.75, 0.25 and 0.5 μg kg^–1 minute^–1 for dobutamine, norepinephrine and phenylephrine, respectively. Dobutamine and norepinephrine increased CI (mean ± standard deviation, 3.35 ± 0.70 and 3.97 ± 1.24 L minute^–1 m^–2, respectively) and decreased SVRI, whereas phenylephrine had the opposite effect (CI 2.13 ± 0.45 L minute^–1 m^–2).Conclusions and clinical relevanceHypotension in isoflurane-anaesthetized dogs administered dexmedetomidine and vatinoxan can be treated with either dobutamine or norepinephrine.     

An overview of the dog–human dyad and ethograms within it

This article reviews the literature on the complex and variable nature of the dog–human dyad and describes the influence of terms such as “dominance” on attitudes that humans have toward dogs. It highlights a legacy of tension between ethology and psychology and notes that some practitioners have skills with dogs that elude the best learning theorists. Despite the widespread appeal of being able to communicate with dogs as dogs do with one another, attempting to apply the intraspecific dog ethogram to human–dog and dog–human interactions may have limited scope. The balance of learning theory and ethology on our interactions with dogs is sometimes elusive but should spur the scientific community to examine skills deployed by the most effective humane practitioners. This process will demystify the so-called whispering techniques and permit discourse on the reasons some training and handling techniques are more effective, relevant, and humane than others. This article explores the mismatch between the use of nonverbal communication of 2 species and offers a framework for future studies in this domain. Technologies emerging from equitation science may help to disclose confusing interventions through the collar and lead and thus define effective and humane use of negative reinforcement. The case for a validated intraspecific and interspecific canid ethogram is also made.     

Does the taking of biopsies affect the metastatic potential of tumours? A systematic review of reports on veterinary and human cases and animal models

Clinicians and pathologists are sporadically asked by owners whether the taking of tumour biopsies may affect the behaviour of the tumour, including its potential to metastasise. Unfortunately, systematic studies on this subject are unavailable in veterinary medicine, and the aim of this study was to estimate the risk of adverse effects of biopsy taking on tumour progression in animals. A systematic review of veterinary and human case reports and clinical studies as well as experimental animal models of biopsy-induced tumour metastasis was undertaken. There were only two veterinary case reports of needle tract metastases (NTM) following the taking of needle biopsies from urogenital and pulmonary tumours. Seventeen experimental studies found a high incidence of NTM but only a rat osteosarcoma and a hamster squamous carcinoma model showed an increased incidence of distant or regional metastases after incision or excision biopsy. In human medicine, the occurrence of NTM has been reported after the taking of biopsies from mesotheliomas (15%), melanomas (11%) and gall bladder tumours (11%), liver metastases of colon carcinomas (4%) and mammary carcinomas (4%) but an incidence of only <1% for all other tumours. Circulating tumour cells increased immediately after the taking of biopsies from human squamous cell, prostate, breast and hepatocellular carcinomas. Although no increased risk of biopsy-induced distant metastasis has been reported for any type of tumour, this is inconclusive due to a lack of non-biopsied control groups in human studies. Reports of biopsy-induced metastasis in animal tumours indicate that the taking of transcutaneous biopsies from urogenital tumours may be associated with a risk of NTM. However, there is no evidence of a general increase in risk of distant metastases in any tumour type in people or animals. The overall risk therefore appears to be negligible when compared to the valuable information obtained from biopsies in veterinary practice.     

Environmental and animal hygiene--an indispensable subject for veterinary education?

Based on conference reports, publications, and personal experiences in the field of veterinary environmental hygiene in Germany and abroad, the question is discussed whether the subjects environmental and animal hygiene have to be considered as indispensable subjects for the curricula in veterinary education or only play a secondary role as a fringe area of veterinary medicine. The analysis and evaluation of the relevant literature have shown that this subject has gained an extraordinary significance for science and practice during the last 4-5 decades. Due to its close interconnections with related fields of science like agriculture, human medicine, biology, ecology, engineering sciences and economics the veterinary environmental and animal hygiene has reached such a high standing that it is now an indispensable component of veterinary education in Germany.