Building on existing models from human medical education to develop a communication curriculum in veterinary medicine

Communication is a core clinical skill of veterinary medicine and one that needs to be taught and learned to the same degree as other clinical skills. To provide this education and essential expertise, veterinary schools in many countries, especially including North America, the United Kingdom, and Australia, have begun to develop programs and communication curricula. Human medical education, however, has 30 years' experience in developing communication curricula, and is thus an excellent resource upon which veterinary educators can build and shape their own communication programs. This article describes a skills-based communication course that has been successfully implemented for veterinary medical education at Ontario Veterinary College (OVC) and was based on the University of Calgary Faculty of Medicine's well-established program. The Calgary-Cambridge Guides and supporting textbooks provide the scaffolding for teaching, learning, and evaluation in both programs. Resources such as space and materials to support the OVC program were also patterned after Calgary's program. Communication skills, and the methods for teaching and learning them, are equally applicable for the needs of both human medicine and veterinary medicine. The research evidence from human medicine is also very applicable for veterinary medicine and provides it the leverage it needs to move forward. With this extensive base available, veterinary medicine is in a position to move communication skills training forward rapidly.     

Global veterinary leadership.

The public needs no reminder that deadly infectious diseases such as FMD could emerge in any country at any moment, or that national food security could be compromised by Salmonella or Listeria infections. Protections against these risks include the knowledge that appropriate and equivalent veterinary education will enable detection and characterization of emerging disease agents, as well as an appropriate response, wherever they occur. Global veterinary leadership is needed to reduce the global threat of infectious diseases of major food animal and public health importance. We believe that the co-curriculum is an excellent way to prepare and train veterinarians and future leaders who understand and can deal with global issues. The key to the success of the program is the veterinarian's understanding that there is a cultural basis to the practice of veterinary medicine in any country. The result will be a cadre of veterinarians, faculty, and other professionals who are better able (language and culture) to understand the effects of change brought about by free trade and the importance of interdisciplinary and institutional relationships to deal effectively with national and regional issues of food safety and security. New global veterinary leadership programs will build on interests, experience, ideas, and ambitions. A college that wishes to take advantage of this diversity must offer opportunities that interest veterinarians throughout their careers and that preferably connect academic study with intensive experiential training in another country. At its best, the global veterinary leadership program would include a partnership between veterinarians and several international learning centers, a responsiveness to the identified international outreach needs of the profession, and attention to critical thinking and reflection. The global veterinary leadership program we have described is intended to be a set of ideas meant to promote collaboration, coalitions, and discussion among veterinarians and veterinary educators who may be intrigued by the concept. The impact of the program can be summarized as follows: Outreach Programs: The global veterinary leadership program will establish new partnerships between veterinarians and veterinary college faculty as they supervise the international internships and see a relationship between their goals and the value of food safety to this country. Strategic Opportunity: The program will build on the critical role that US veterinarians and veterinary colleges already play in strengthening the safety of free trade in this hemisphere. Diversity in an Age of Specialization: The program will combine a global orientation, language ability, and access to comprehensive, research- and economic-related work/study opportunities to expose veterinarians to the expanding world market for veterinary expertise. New Linkages Through Corporate Partners: Through the success and high visibility of current research and education programs, most veterinary colleges are well positioned to engage industry, government, and university leaders in ways to use the proposed program to increase the flow of new ideas and talent into the world food enterprise. International Funding: A new partnership among veterinarians, industry, government, and university leaders can coordinate strong multilateral requests for funding from national and international sources. An Interdisciplinary Strategy that Benefits Veterinary Medicine: The program will combine the diverse veterinary research and education system with our strong national and international network of collaborators to provide globally competent veterinarians who will be needed for the corporate and public opportunities of the future.     

The future of veterinary medicine in poultry production

The poultry industry is a highly complex food-animal production system. Its success is dependent upon sophisticated techniques and systems to ensure disease prevention and product quality. Poultry veterinarians play a key role in the overall business and are typically the only individuals within poultry companies who are involved in the entire production process, including production management, health management, product quality, nutrition, and economics. Preparing veterinarians to work effectively in the poultry industry can no longer be accomplished within the DVM instructional program. Post-DVM training programs specializing in poultry medicine are now producing the veterinarians entering the North American poultry industry. Regionalization of training in poultry medicine has already taken place. These training programs are very important to food animal production in North America; in the future, they must be nurtured and supported in order to remain able to supply the veterinary workforce for our dynamic poultry industry.     

Toward harmonization of the European food hygiene/veterinary public health curriculum

Prompted by developments in the agri-food industry and associated recent changes in European legislation, the responsibilities of veterinarians professionally active in veterinary public health (VPH), and particularly in food hygiene (FH), have increasingly shifted from the traditional end-product control toward longitudinally integrated safety assurance. This necessitates the restructuring of university training programs to provide starting competence in this area for veterinary graduates or a sub-population of them. To date, there are substantial differences in Europe in the way in which graduate programs in FH/VPH are structured and in the time allocated to this important curricular group of subjects. Having recognized this, the European Association of Establishments for Veterinary Education (EAEVE) recently instituted a working group to analyze the current situation, with a view to produce standard operating procedures allowing fair and transparent evaluations of universities/faculties constituting its membership and in concurrence with explicit European legislation on the professional qualifications deemed necessary for this veterinary discipline. This article summarizes the main conclusions and recommendations of the working group and seeks to contribute to the international efforts to optimize veterinary training in FH/VPH.     

Training the veterinary public health workforce: a review of educational opportunities in US veterinary schools

This article presents the results of an Internet-based review conducted in January and February 2003 to assess the educational opportunities available in veterinary public health, epidemiology, and preventive medicine at the 27 veterinary schools in the United States. Most professional veterinary curricula are designed to train students for careers as highly qualified private practitioners, although there is an increased need for veterinary perspectives and contributions in the public health sector. The future of veterinary public health relies on the opportunities available in education to teach and encourage students to pursue a career of public service. The results of this review indicate the availability of a wide variety of required courses, electives, and post-graduate training programs to veterinary students in the United States. Veterinary students are exposed to a median of 60 hours of public health, epidemiology, and preventive medicine in required stand-alone courses in these areas. Four veterinary schools also have required rotations for senior students in public health, preventive medicine, or population medicine. Contact time for required public health, epidemiology, and preventive medicine courses ranges from 30 to 150 contact hours. Advanced training was available in these subjects at 79% of the 27 schools. Greater collaboration between veterinary schools, schools of public health, and the professional public health community will increase exposure to and opportunities in public health to all future veterinarians.     

Preparing the veterinary profession for corporate and trade issues in the Americas: proceedings of a conference on synergism and globalization, Santiago, Chile, May 6-8, 2001

The complex and rapid-paced development of international trade, coupled with increasing societal demands for the production not only of abundant and inexpensive food, but also of food that is safe and has been raised in a humane and environmentally friendly manner, demands immediate attention from the veterinary community. The new culture of global trade agreements, spurred by the development of the WTO, dictates massive changes and increasing integration of public and private sectors. This is a huge growth area for our profession and will require individuals with a skill set we do not yet provide in our educational framework. In North America, veterinary education is parochial and focused on specialization. This strong orientation toward companion animals fails to provide adequate training for those interested in acquiring the necessary skills for the emerging area of globalization and trade. In South America, curricula are less harmonized with one another and there is tremendous variation in degree programs, rendering it difficult to ascertain whether veterinarians are prepared to assume decision-making responsibilities regarding international transport of food. If we do not begin to prepare our graduates adequately for this emerging market demand, the positions will be filled by other professions. These other professions lack broad-based scientific knowledge about animal physiology and disease causation. Decisions made without adequate background could have devastating consequences for society, including incursions of unwelcome diseases, food safety problems, and public health issues. To prepare our new veterinary graduates for the future and this emerging market, it is important to nurture a global mindset within our academic communities and to promote communications, languages, and an interdependent team mentality. Areas of technical expertise that need a place, perhaps a parallel track, in the curriculum include production medicine, public health, food safety, and international veterinary medicine. The major trade corridors of the future regarding animal-based protein flow between North and South America. It is absolutely essential that we find areas of consensus and deficiencies so that we can harmonize our trade agreements and ensure adequate flow of safe food products from one continent to the other.     

Teaching of veterinary parasitology: the Italian perspective

The curriculum in veterinary medicine in Italy is undergoing important changes, as in the rest of Europe. The 2001 fall semester will mark the beginning of a new format for the degree in veterinary medicine and these changes will obviously affect the teaching of veterinary parasitology. In Italy, veterinary parasitology is usually taught in the third year with a disciplinary approach, similar to that described by Euzéby [Vet. Parasitol. 64 (1996) 21] and Eckert [Vet. Parasitol. 88 (2000) 117]. Approximately 90 h of lectures and 40 h of laboratory are offered and are usually divided into parasitology, followed by parasitic diseases. A more problem-oriented approach to parasitology is offered to fifth-year students within several professional routes (large animal medicine, small animal medicine, hygiene and food safety, etc.), amounting to approximately 15-60 h per student. Indeed, in the last year of study, there are less students and it is possible to present clinical cases and orient the students towards team work and critical discussion. This new curriculum guarantees a reduction in the number of lecture hours and an increase in both laboratory work and personal study, as suggested by the guidelines of the European association of establishment for veterinary education (EAEVE).     

Exploring the foundations of population health and preventive medicine as essential elements for veterinary education

The evolution of preventive medicine and public health training in professional veterinary medicine curricula is documented. Most veterinary colleges in the US began with a single course in meat hygiene or public health, with a focus on food hygiene issues. These courses laid the foundation for modern veterinary preventive medicine and public health training for veterinary students. Most graduates of veterinary colleges today have extensive training in population health, preventive medicine, and zoonotic diseases.     

Pharmacists in veterinary education: bridging the gap

Veterinary patients stand to benefit greatly from the collaboration of pharmacy and veterinary medicine, and there are many ways pharmacy and veterinary medicine can work in concert. The best efforts to revise and remodel veterinary and pharmacy education to fit an evolving world of clinical practice are grounded in an understanding of each profession. Veterinary education should impart to its students and residents the skills necessary to critically evaluate drug therapy, select therapies based on facts from drug information sources, and operate a veterinary practice that abides by the legal, regulatory, and operational requirements necessary to maintain and dispense drugs. The academic training environment of each profession must include information on the other, in order to better prepare professionals for a realistic practice environment. When armed with an understanding of what pharmacists can provide their patients, veterinarians can demand these skills where appropriate. With the ultimate goal of producing an optimal learning environment, veterinary curricula should allow both pharmacy and veterinary medicine to work together to build a path to quality patient care and educational superiority.     

Food-supply veterinary medicine and veterinary medical education: an Australian perspective

Food-supply veterinary medicine has been an essential part of veterinary degree programs in Australia since the first veterinary school opened in the late nineteenth century. Australian veterinary schools, like others internationally, are being challenged by the relevance of material in current curricula for modern food-supply veterinary medicine. Additionally, student aspirations are a major issue, as curriculum designers balance companion-animal training with the herd/flock-based issues that focus on productivity and profitability. One of the challenges is to examine the relative balance of education in generic skills (self-knowledge, change management, teamwork, leadership, negotiation) with more technically or scientifically based education. An ongoing process of curriculum review and renewal, which involves input from both external and internal stakeholders and allows regular review and assessment, is needed to ensure continuing curriculum relevance.     

Resident and graduate training in veterinary nutrition

Training programs for veterinarians seeking board certification by the American College of Veterinary Nutrition (ACVN) are structured in one of two ways: (1) as programs similar to specialty training in other clinical disciplines or (2) as graduate programs leading to advanced degrees combined with clinical training. Residency training occurs through a variety of approaches, including didactic coursework, case-based and applied learning, clinical training, teaching, research, and self-study. Challenges to successful residency and graduate training include low numbers of diplomates, particularly at veterinary schools; low numbers of applicants; small numbers of funded programs; and faculty promotion systems that do not reward residency or graduate training and program development. The mentoring of individuals seeking both board certification and a graduate degree presents additional considerations, including recruitment of individuals motivated in research and structuring a combined program that facilitates completion of both tasks in a timely fashion.     

Internationalizing veterinary education in the 21st century

This paper presents the results of a survey conducted in the spring of 2001 to assess international activities at colleges of veterinary medicine in North America. A questionnaire was sent to all 31 colleges of veterinary medicine in the United States and Canada, of which 22 responded. Of those schools responding to the survey, 86% have International Veterinary Medicine (IVM) programs and most have faculty involved in internationally oriented research (95%), in teaching IVM (74%), in mentoring veterinary students in IVM (84%), and in international consultancies (84%). Funding sources for faculty international activities include foundations, intramural funds, curriculum development grants, endowment/development funds, and sabbaticals. Foreign animal diseases are the most commonly taught international topic. The increasing importance of international veterinary issues is leading to the internationalization of the veterinary education in North America. Most IVM programs include activities of both faculty and students. Greater collaboration between faculty and programs across schools would allow schools to benefit from each other's strengths in IVM education.     

Providing stewardship and leadership for the future of veterinary medical research: a responsibility of the veterinary colleges

As we contemplate responsibilities as well as opportunities in research, it is fair to begin by considering why research is, or should be, important to veterinary schools and colleges, to our profession, and to society. Veterinary research is conducted in many venues, such as colleges of veterinary medicine, veterinary science departments, comparative medicine departments, medical schools, and many other university departments, as well as in industry laboratories, governmental agencies, and other organizations. But schools and colleges of veterinary medicine have a unique and historic responsibility to ensure that our veterinary medical research programs are sufficient in quality, capacity, and depth to meet the research needs of our society. Consequently, my comments will be oriented toward veterinary schools and colleges.     

Nanoscience in veterinary medicine

Nanotechnology, as an enabling technology, has the potential to revolutionize veterinary medicine. Examples of potential applications in animal agriculture and veterinary medicine include disease diagnosis and treatment delivery systems, new tools for molecular and cellular breeding, identity preservation of animal history from birth to a consumer's table, the security of animal food products, major impact on animal nutrition scenarios ranging from the diet to nutrient uptake and utilization, modification of animal waste as expelled from the animal, pathogen detection, and many more. Existing research has demonstrated the feasibility of introducing nanoshells and nanotubes into animals to seek and destroy targeted cells. Thus, building blocks do exist and are expected to be integrated into systems over the next couple of decades on a commercial basis. While it is reasonable to presume that nanobiotechnology industries and unique developments will revolutionize veterinary medicine in the future, there is a huge concern, among some persons and organizations, about food safety and health as well as social and ethical issues which can delay or derail technological advancements.     

Developing and fostering a dynamic program for training in veterinary pathology and clinical pathology: veterinary students to post-graduate education

Recent reports project a deficiency of veterinary pathologists, indicating a need to train highly qualified veterinary pathologists, particularly in academic veterinary medicine. The need to provide high-quality research training for veterinary pathologists has been recognized by the veterinary pathology training program of the Ohio State University (OSU) since its inception. The OSU program incorporates elements of both residency training and graduate education into a unified program. This review illustrates the components and structure of the training program and reflects on future challenges in training veterinary pathologists. Key elements of the OSU program include an experienced faculty, dedicated staff, and high-quality students who have a sense of common mission. The program is supported through cultural and infrastructure support. Financial compensation, limited research funding, and attractive work environments, including work-life balance, will undoubtedly continue to be forces in the marketplace for veterinary pathologists. To remain competitive and to expand the ability to train veterinary pathologists with research skills, programs must support strong faculty members, provide appropriate infrastructure support, and seek active partnerships with private industry to expand program opportunities. Shortages of trained faculty may be partially resolved by regional cooperation to share faculty expertise or through the use of communications technology to bridge distances between programs. To foster continued interest in academic careers, training programs will need to continue to evolve and respond to trainees' needs while maintaining strong allegiances to high-quality pathology training. Work-life balance, collegial environments that foster a culture of respect for veterinary pathology, and continued efforts to reach out to veterinary students to provide opportunities to learn about the diverse careers offered in veterinary pathology will pay long-term dividends for the future of the profession.     

Evaluation of veterinary public practice education programs

OBJECTIVE: To describe the number and types of veterinary professional degree and certificate programs providing education in the area of public practice to veterinarians and determine the availability of these programs via distance learning. PROCEDURES: Web-based internet searches were performed for programs for veterinary public practice or public health, population medicine, or Master's degree in Epidemiology. The information reviewed was derived from individual school and program Web sites and from personal e-mail correspondence with school administrators. RESULTS: 17 professional degree and 4 certificate programs were available to provide education and training in the areas of public practice and population medicine to veterinarians. Twelve of these programs have begun since 1998. Of the 17 professional degree programs, 7 are located in the United States and 10 are located in other countries. Nine of the professional degree programs provide education through traditional teaching methods, and 8 provide education and training through distance learning. CONCLUSIONS: During the preceding 5 years, the number of programs available to educate and train veterinarians in the areas of public practice and population medicine has increased. Distance learning is being used to increase capacity and reach a broader audience of veterinarians. With the increase in programs has come an increase in capacity to educate and train veterinarians in the fields of population medicine and public practice. The impact and sustainability of this increased capacity have not been evaluated.     

The post degree training of the veterinary hygienist

Regulation (EC) No 178/2002 states that each stage of production- from the primary production to the processing and distribution of feed and food- must be considered as a unique process, as each stage has a potential impact on food safety, animal health, plant health and environment. Aim of this paper is to discuss the different instruments and objectives of post-degree training of the veterinary hygienist and the ways that these may enable him/her to become updated, informed and competent in order to manage the different problems of food production in relation to the implications of the total food chain and not only of single stages and to apply the proper control measures at each step in order to protect human health.     

The post degree training of the veterinary hygienist

Regulation (EC) No 178/2002 states that each stage of production- from the primary production to the processing and distribution of feed and food- must be considered as a unique process, as each stage has a potential impact on food safety, animal health, plant health and environment. Aim of this paper is to discuss the different instruments and objectives of post-degree training of the veterinary hygienist and the ways that these may enable him/her to become updated, informed and competent in order to manage the different problems of food production in relation to the implications of the total food chain and not only of single stages and to apply the proper control measures at each step in order to protect human health.     

Results of a survey on educational and research programs in complementary and alternative veterinary medicine at veterinary medical schools in the United States

OBJECTIVE: To document educational and research programs in complementary and alternative veterinary medicine (CAVM) at US veterinary schools and to develop recommendations for additional curriculum development and research in these modalities. DESIGN: Mail questionnaire. SAMPLE POPULATION: Deans, curriculum committees, and interested faculty at US veterinary schools. PROCEDURES: Questionnaires were mailed to personnel at all 27 US veterinary schools. Nonrespondents received a follow-up letter and telephone contact. Information was used to establish the current status of CAVM. RESULTS: Responses were received for 41 of 120 (34%) questionnaires. Responses were received from 23 of 27 veterinary schools, but number of respondents varied at each institution (range, 1 to 4) and some surveys were not complete. Seven of 27 US veterinary schools had an educational program in CAVM. Thirty-six (87%) respondents believed that acupuncture, nutraceuticals, nutritional supplements, and physical therapy should be included in the curriculum, 25 (61%) indicated that botanical (herbal) medicine should be included, and 25 (61%) believed that chiropractic should be included. Only 17 (44%) respondents believed that homeopathy should be included. The majority of respondents believed that CAVM should be offered as elective courses. Research in CAVM has been conducted at 6 responding schools. CONCLUSIONS: Currently, few veterinary schools offer educational or research programs in CAVM. Veterinary schools are aware of the interest in CAVM and acknowledge a lack of educational and research programs in these areas. More veterinary schools are in the process of developing educational and research programs in various aspects of CAVM.     

Postgraduate training programs in veterinary clinical pathology in the United States and Canada (1998 to 2002)

Background: Residency and graduate programs in veterinary clinical pathology provide specialized training for board certification and are important pathways to careers in clinical pathology diagnostics, teaching, and research. Information about training opportunities is useful for assessing disciplinary needs, outcomes, and changes, garnering program support, and providing objective data for program evaluation by faculty, trainees, and prospective applicants. Objectives: The goals of this study were to 1) compile detailed information on the number and types of postgraduate training programs in veterinary clinical pathology in the United States and Canada, 2) describe the goals, activities, strengths, and weaknesses of the programs, 3) assess the desirability of program accreditation and program standards, 4) identify supplemental training opportunities, and 5) evaluate changes in programs, trainees, and faculty 4 years later. Methods: In July 1998, the American Society for Veterinary Clinical Pathology Education Committee sent a survey to representatives at the 31 schools and colleges of veterinary medicine in the United States and Canada and 31 diagnostic laboratories, private hospitals, and pharmaceutical companies. Survey data were compared with updated information obtained from training program coordinators in November 2002. Results: Survey response rate was 94% for universities, 39% for nonuniversity institutions, and 66% overall. In 1998, there were 20 clinical pathology training programs, including residencies (n=10) and graduate programs combined with residency training (n=10), with 36 total training positions. In 2002, there were 25 training programs (14 residencies, 11 combined), with 52 total positions. The median faculty: trainee ratio was 2.0 in both years. Of 67 faculty members involved in training in 1998, 57 (85.1%) were board‐certified in clinical pathology and 53 (79.1%) had DVM/PhD degrees. Net faculty numbers increased by 17 (25.4%) but the median per institution remained at 3.0. Primary program goals were 1) eligibility for and successful achievement of board certification in clinical pathology by the American College of Veterinary Pathologists, 2) proficiency in laboratory diagnostics, and 3) contemporary basic or applied research training. Many programs cited research opportunities, caseloads, and training in hematology and cytology as strengths. Program weaknesses included insufficient funding, too few faculty, and limited training in clinical chemistry and laboratory operations/quality assurance. Trainees completing programs within the past 5 years (n=70) were employed in academia (28.6%), diagnostic laboratories (32.9%), and industry (18.6%). For trainees completing programs between 1999 and 2002 (n=38), these percentages were 52.6%, 21.1%, and 7.9%, respectively. Most (62.5%) respondents supported program standards and accreditation, and 76% supported board review sessions for trainees. Conclusions: Opportunities for postgraduate training in veterinary clinical pathology increased between 1998 and 2002, with 5 new programs and 16 new training positions. These additions and the increased emphasis on diagnostic proficiency, efforts to strengthen training in clinical chemistry and quality assurance, and continuation of combined PhD‐residency programs will help address the perceived need for increased numbers of qualified clinical pathologists in academia, diagnostic laboratories, and industry.