The immunogenicity of fusion protein linking the carboxyl terminus of the B subunit of Shiga toxin 2 to the B subunit of E. coli heat-labile enterotoxin

To augment the immunogenicity of the subunit B of Shiga toxin (Stx2e B) produced by Escherichia coli and protect piglets from edema disease in china, a fusion gene was constructed consisting of Stx2e B genetically linked at the N-terminus of the B subunit of heat-labile enterotoxin (LTB) in a translational fusion. After being induced with IPTG, the expressed fusion protein of Stx2e B-LTB was about 8.8% of total proteins, approximately 13 microg/ml of the bacteria culture. The Stx2e B-LTB fusion protein was found to be nontoxic to Vero cells at the dose higher than 1 microg/ml and to mice less than 100 microg/ml. Antibody titer against the fusion protein Stx2e B-LTB was 1:76,800, much higher than that of the recombinant Stx2e B protein (1:12,800) alone. All of the mice immunized with the Stx2e B-LTB fusion protein survived when challenged with a lethal dose (LD) of Stx2e toxin. The results showed that the poor immunogenicity of Stx2e B was overcome by conjugating the stx2e B to ltB. The immunogenicity of the constructed fusion protein Stx2e B-LTB in the present study was highly qualified to protect animals against Shiga toxin produced from Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC). The fusion protein of Stx2e B-LTB could be a candidate for a vaccine against edema disease and post-weaning diarrhea simultaneously in piglets.     

猪水肿病大肠杆菌贵州分离株毒素Stx2e对Vero细胞的毒性作用

猪水肿病毒素即Ⅱ型志贺毒素变异体e亚型(Shiga toxin 2e,Stx2e)。采用吖啶橙/溴化乙锭(AO/EB)双荧光染色法和四甲基偶氮唑盐(MTT)比色法,比较了从患水肿病猪粪便样品中分离的28株大肠杆菌所产志贺毒素对Vero细胞的毒性作用。结果显示,MTT比色法检测的细胞比活力与AO/EB染色法检测的正常细胞与早期凋亡细胞比率之和呈正相关。将28株菌株产生的Stx2e作用于Vero细胞,均能抑制Vero细胞的生长,并诱导Vero细胞的凋亡;其中8株病原菌所产Stx2e毒素对Vero细胞的毒性作用强于O157∶H7。这些毒素的毒力差异可能与其A亚基基因的结构变异有关。结果提示,贵州分离的产Stx2e大肠杆菌的毒力存在一定差异,其中部分菌株的毒力作用较强,应加强对养殖场仔猪的保护。     

Evaluation of immunochromatographic test of Shiga toxin 2e in enrichment cultures of swine edema disease clinical samples

To simplify the diagnosis of swine edema disease, overnight culture supernatants of swine clinical samples were assayed using immunochromatographic test strips we developed previously. Small-intestinal contents, mesenteric lymph nodes, and fecal samples were cultured in casamino acid-yeast extract broth overnight, after which supernatants were loaded onto immunochromatographic test strips to determine whether they could detect Shiga toxin 2e (Stx2e). Among 23 clinical samples in which PCR-identified stx2e-positive E. coli were isolated, samples from seven of ten small-intestinal contents, one of three mesenteric lymph nodes and six of ten fecal samples showed Stx2e-positive reactions in the protein-based immunochromatographic test. Additionally, one small-intestinal content sample, in which stx2e-positive E. coli were not isolated, showed an Stx2e-positive reaction. Furthermore, the immunochromatographic test results of the samples were associated with the toxin concentration determined by sandwich ELISA and cytotoxicity assay results on Vero cells. The toxin concentration range of the samples with positive and negative reactions were 2.1–196.2 ng/ml and 0–12.8 ng/ml, respectively. The sensitivity and specificity of this immunochromatographic test strip calculated from all clinical samples analyzed in this study were 60.9% and 94.4%, respectively. Our immunochromatographic test strip has strong potential for simple and accurate diagnosis for edema disease by detecting toxin expression, complementing the PCR method.     

Shiga/verocytotoxins and Shiga/verotoxigenic Escherichia coli in animals.

Vero/Shiga toxins (VT/Stx) have an A-B structure: the A subunit carries the enzymatic activity and the B subunit binds the toxin to the membrane receptor (Gb3 or Gb4). The VT/Stx inhibit protein synthesis in the target eucaryotic cells, mainly the endothelial cells of blood vessels. The VT/Stx are subdivided into two families. VT1/Stx1 is a homogeneous family of toxins identical to the Stx of Shigella dysenteriae. VT2/Stx2 is a more heterogeneous family of toxins more distantly related to this Stx toxin. The VT2/Stx2 variants can be distinguished by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and/or the reaction with monoclonal antibodies. The VT/Stx-producing Escherichia coli are also subdivided into two main groups on the basis of the presence or absence of additional properties: the enterohaemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC) induce the formation of attaching/effacing lesions and carry a 60 MD plasmid encoding a specific haemolysin (the enterohaemolysin); the vero/shiga-toxigenic E. coli (VTEC/STEC) do not show these properties. The EHEC are isolated from humans and ruminants, especially young calves. They are associated with haemorrhagic enterocolitis and its sequelae in humans, the haemolytic-uraemic syndrome (HUS). The VT/Stx play a role in the occurrence of blood in the faeces and in the HUS by their action on the endothelial cells of blood vessels in the intestinal submucosa and in the renal glomeruli, after resorption through the intestinal walls. The VTEC/STEC are isolated from piglets, calves and humans. In recently weaned piglets, they cause the oedema disease, an enterotoxaemia characterized by subcutaneous, mesenteric and cerebral oedemas, with nervous disorders as main clinical signs. The oedema disease is the consequence of the action of the VT/Stx on the endothelial cells of blood vessels in various organs. In calves and humans, the role in disease of VTEC/STEC is controversial, but they could be associated with some cases of diarrhoea and HUS. The case of the O157:H7 EHEC which are present in healthy cattle of various ages, but are highly virulent for humans is of special interest. The potential zoonotic aspect of VT/Stx-producing E. coli infections in animals is detailed chapter by chapter. Prophylaxis of these infections by vaccination is the subject of the discussion on the future of the research studies on these pathogenic bacteria.     

A globotetraosylceramide (Gb4) receptor-based ELISA for quantitative detection of Shiga toxin 2e

Currently, no simple assays are available for routine quantitative detection of Escherichia coli-produced Shiga toxin 2e (Stx2e) that causes porcine edema disease. Here, we present a novel quantitative detection method for Stx2e based on the measurement of Stx2e binding to the specific globotetraosylceramide (Gb₄) receptor by ELISA (Gb₄-ELISA). No cross-reactivity was found with the other Shiga toxins Stx1 and Stx2, indicating high specificity. When the recombinant Stx2e B subunit (Stx2eB) was used, the absorbance measured by Gb₄-ELISA increased linearly with Stx2eB concentration in the range of 20–2,500 ng/ml. The Gb₄-ELISA method can be easily performed, suggesting that it would be a useful diagnostic tool for porcine edema disease.     

New biological effect of edema disease principle (Escherichia coli-neurotoxin) and its use as an in vitro for this toxin

Edema disease principle (EDP) extracted from porcine Escherichia coli strains was shown to be cytotoxic for Vero cells. This biological effect was thermolabile and specifically neutralized by anti-EDP serum. The EDP did not cross-neutralize with antiheat-labile enterotoxin or anti-Vero toxin sera. Parallel studies conducted in mice indicated that the same entity may be responsible for the in vivo and in vitro effects. The results of these experiments provide an effective basis for the first in vitro EDP serologic test.     

Effect of virus-specific antibodies on attachment, internalization and infection of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus in primary macrophages

Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) induces respiratory distress in young pigs and reproductive failure in sows. In PRRSV infected pigs, virus persists for several weeks to several months. Although IPMA antibodies are detected from 7 days post inoculation (pi), virus neutralizing (VN) antibodies are commonly detected starting from 3 weeks pi with an SN test on Marc-145 cells. Since infection of Marc-145 cells is quite different compared to infection of macrophages, the in vivo target cell, the role of these VN antibodies in in vivo protection is questionable. In our study, we demonstrated that antibodies from pigs early in infection with PRRSV Lelystad virus (14 days pi) showed no neutralization in the SN test on Marc-145 cells, but partially reduced Lelystad virus infection of porcine alveolar macrophages. At 72 days pi, VN antibodies were detected by the SN test on Marc-145 cells, and these protected macrophages completely against Lelystad virus infection. In contrast, these VN antibodies only partially reduced porcine alveolar macrophage infection of a Belgian PRRSV isolate (homologous virus), and had no effect on infection of porcine alveolar macrophages with the American type VR-2332 strain (heterologous virus). Confocal analysis of Lelystad virus attachment and internalization in macrophages showed that antibodies blocked infection through both a reduction in virus attachment, and a reduction of PRRSV internalization. Western immunoblotting analysis revealed that sera from 14 days pi, which showed no neutralization in the SN test on Marc-145 cells but partially reduced Lelystad virus infection of macrophages, predominantly recognized the Lelystad virus N protein, and reacted faintly with the M envelope protein. Sera from 72 days pi, with VN antibodies that blocked infection of Marc-145 cells and PAM, reacted with the N protein and the two major envelope proteins M and GP5. Using the Belgian PRRSV isolate 94V360 an identical but less intense reactivity profile was obtained. VN sera also recognized the VR-2332 N and M protein, but not the GP5 protein.     

A test in vero cell monolayers for toxin production by strains of Pasteurella multocida isolated from pigs suspected of having atrophic rhinitis

Monolayers of Vero cells showed a morphological changes after exposure to supernatants of certain porcine Pasteurella multocida cultures. It appeared possible to screen Pasteurella multocida isolates for their ability to produce toxin and to cause atrophic rhinitis in pigs. A close correlation with the guinea pig skin test was demonstrated.     

The fungal T-2 toxin alters the activation of primary macrophages induced by TLR-agonists resulting in a decrease of the inflammatory response in the pig

T-2 toxin is known to be one of the most toxic trichothecene mycotoxins. Exposure to T-2 toxin induces many hematologic and immunotoxic disorders and is involved in immuno-modulation of the innate immune response. The objective of this work was to evaluate the effects of T-2 toxin on the activation of macrophages by different agonists of Toll-like receptors (TLR) using an in vitro model of primary porcine alveolar macrophages (PAM). Cytotoxic effects of T-2 toxin on PAM were first evaluated. An IC₅₀ of 19.47 ± 0.9753 nM was determined for the cytotoxicity of T-2 toxin. A working concentration of 3 nM of T-2 toxin was chosen to test the effect of T-2 toxin on TLR activation; this dose was not cytotoxic and did not induce apoptosis as demonstrated by Annexin/PI staining. A pre-exposure of macrophages to 3 nM of T-2 toxin decreased the production of inflammatory mediators (IL-1 beta, TNF-alpha, nitric oxide) in response to LPS and FSL1, TLR4 and TLR2/6 agonists respectively. The decrease of the pro-inflammatory response is associated with a decrease of TLR mRNA expression. By contrast, the activation of TLR7 by ssRNA was not modulated by T-2 toxin pre-treatment. In conclusion, our results suggest that ingestion of low concentrations of T-2 toxin affects the TLR activation by decreasing pattern recognition of pathogens and thus interferes with initiation of inflammatory immune response against bacteria and viruses. Consequently, mycotoxins could increase the susceptibility of humans and animals to infectious diseases.     

Isolation and serial propagation of porcine epidemic diarrhea virus in cell cultures and partial characterization of the isolate.

Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) was isolated in Vero cell cultures from the small intestine of a piglet experimentally infected with porcine coronavirus 83P-5, that had been isolated during outbreaks of porcine acute diarrhea and passaged in piglets. The isolation of the PEDV was successful only in Vero cells maintained in the maintenance medium (MM) containing trypsin. Infected Vero cell cultures exhibited CPE characterized by cell-fusion and syncytial formation, as well as cytoplasmic fluorescence when examined by the indirect immunofluorescent test using rabbit anti-83P-5 virus serum. The isolate was adapted to serial propagation in Vero cell cultures by adding trypsin to MM. Vero cell-adapted PEDV was successfully propagated in the MA104, CPK and ESK cell lines in the presence of trypsin in MM. Vero cell-adapted PEDV had morphologic and physicochemical characteristics similar to those of other members of the coronaviridae. The isolate differed serologically from porcine transmissible gastroenteritis (TGE) and porcine hemagglutinating encephalomyelitis viruses, and no antigenic relationship between the isolate and TGE virus could be detected by the indirect immunofluorescent test. Attempts to isolate PEDV in 6 types of primary fetal pig cell cultures and 6 of 10 established cell lines resulted in the failure, probably because these cells were damaged by the action of trypsin.     

猪繁殖与呼吸综合征病毒细胞受体Sn和CD163TaqMan荧光定量RT-PCR方法的建立

为建立检测猪繁殖与呼吸综合征病毒(PRRSV)允许细胞表面的Sn和CD163受体的方法,本研究设计针对Sn和CD163基因的特异性引物和荧光探针,建立了检测PRRSV Sn和CD163受体的荧光定量RT-PCR方法.结果显示,该方法在检测101 copies/μL～108 copies/μL模板范围内具有良好的线性关系.标准曲线的相关系数r值均大于0.996,扩增效率分别为100％和107％;该检测方法对Sn和CD163的检测下限均为10拷贝,敏感性高;批内重复试验和批间重复试验的变异系数均小于5％,具有良好的重复性.利用该方法对PRRSV感染肺泡巨噬细胞(PAM) 72 h后Sn和CD163受体mRNA的转录水平进行了检测,结果表明Sn和CD163受体的转录 水平显著上调.本研究为PRRSV病毒感染后两种主要受体变化趋势的研究提供了有效的检测方法.     

Quantitative Analysis of Interleukin-6 Expression in Porcine Spleen Cells and Alveolar Macrophages using Real-Time PCR

Interleukin-6 (IL-6), a multifocal cytokine produced by lymphoid and non-lymphoid cells, regulates immune responses, acute-phase reactions against bacterial infections, and haematopoiesis. After cloning and sequencing of porcine IL-6, the expression pattern of porcine IL-6 mRNA was evaluated through real-time RT-PCR using porcine immune cells (spleen cells and alveolar macrophages) following stimulation with LPS. The sequence has been reported to GenBank with Accession no. AF 518322. The nucleotide sequence was different at the 89th and 205th positions in comparison with M80258, but only at the 205th with M86722. Comparison of porcine IL-6, Accession no. AF 518322, with IL-6 of human, canine, ovine, and mouse showed homologies of 78%, 81%, 82% and 73% in nucleotide sequence and 42%, 69%, 61% and 42% in amino acids. Expression of IL-6 mRNA was induced by stimulation with LPS. IL-6 mRNA expression in alveolar macrophages peaked at 2 h and decreased sharply to control levels at 4 h, whereas it peaked at 14 h and decreased at 24 h in spleen cells after stimulation with LPS (1 microg/ml). These results suggest that IL-6 mRNA expression in porcine immune cells is cell-type specific and the results of this study could be used as the basis for research on the porcine immune system.     

猪肺巨噬细胞FcγR Ⅲ受体基因的克隆与序列分析

为研究猪肺巨噬细胞FcγR Ⅲ的生物学功能,本研究应用RT-PCR技术从猪肺巨噬细胞总RNA中克隆出猪FcγR Ⅲ的cDNA序列,并对其进行了分析。结果表明,克隆到的序列长820 bp,包含有1个771 bp完整开放阅读框(ORF),与GenBank中登录的猪FcγR Ⅲ序列(AF237453)的核苷酸同源性为99.9％;与人、牛、马、绵羊、猕猴、狗、猫、小鼠氨基酸同源性分别为61.6%、62.9%、55.3%、62.2%、63.0%、59.0%、61.8%和53.2%;蛋白质分子结构预测结果表明,该分子由信号肽（20个氨基酸）、胞外区(185个氨基酸)、跨膜区(23个氨基酸)和胞内区(28个氨基酸)组成,在胞外区存在2个Ig样结构域。猪肺巨噬细胞FcγR Ⅲ基因的成功克隆,为进一步研究其结构与功能奠定基础。     

Virulence and fitness gene patterns of Shiga toxin-encoding Escherichia coli isolated from pigs with edema disease or diarrhea in Germany

Fecal Escherichia coli isolates (n = 3,218) from piglets with edema disease or diarrhea were screened for the genes of Stx2 and Stx2 variants. A total of 283 E. coli isolates (8.8%) proved exclusively positive for Stx2e and most of these (85.1%) harbored genes for F18 fimbria. No recognized adhesins were detectable in 14.5% of the isolates. Genes for heat-stable or heat-labile E. coli enterotoxins were found in F18+ as well as F18 isolates (51.9% and 33.3%, respectively). Five isolates also harbored fyuA and irp2 genes which are indicative of a high pathogenicity island in E. coli. All Stx2e+ isolates lacked genes for intimin, EHEC hemolysin, STEC autoagglutinating adhesin, subtilase cytotoxin, serine protease Espl. The majority of Stx2e+ isolates belonged to phylogenetic groups A (59.3%) and D (38.9%) and only few isolates were classified as B1 and B2 (1.8%). The results suggest that Stx2e-producing E. coli strains are highly prevalent in diseased pigs in Germany. Despite their significant diversity, most strains possess all typical features (Stx2e, F18) of porcine edema disease E. coli. However, a considerable portion of porcine strains resembles published human Stx2e+ strains in that they lack any recognized pig-associated adhesin. Thus, a zoonotic potential cannot be excluded for these strains.     

稳定高效表达猪CD163的Marc-145细胞系的构建与鉴定

试验旨在构建一株高效表达猪CD163(pCD163)的Marc-145细胞系,为猪繁殖与呼吸综合征病毒(porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus,PRRSV)的临床分离和疫苗生产奠定基础。根据GenBank中序列设计引物从猪肺泡巨噬细胞(PAM)中扩增pCD163基因,将其插入真核表达载体pCI-neo构建真核表达质粒pCI-pCD163,将该重组质粒转染Marc-145细胞,通过G418筛选、单克隆化并扩大培养筛选获得表达pCD163的Marc-145细胞系,IFA、Western blotting鉴定其表达情况。IFA结果显示,构建的pCD163-Marc细胞系中荧光明显亮于普通Marc-145细胞;Western blotting结果显示,pCD163-Marc细胞系中CD163蛋白表达量约为对照Marc-145细胞中CD163蛋白表达量的8.7倍。且该细胞系可稳定传至20代,各代次之间表达量无差异。证明高效表达猪CD163的Marc-145细胞系构建成功。     

Establishment and Identification of One Marc-145 Cell Line Stably and Highly Expressing Porcine CD163

This study was attempted to generate one Marc-145 cell line stably and highly expressing porcine CD163 (pCD163) and set the foundation for PRRSV isolation and vaccine production.CD163 was shown to be a cellular receptor capable of mediating infection of PRRSV non-permissive cell lines.The pCD163 gene was amplified by RT-PCR from porcine alveolar macrophages and cloned into the eukaryotic expression vector pCI-neo, then the positive plasmid pCI-pCD163 was transfected into Marc-145 cells.After selecting with G418 and subcloning for 3 times, Marc-145 cell line expressing pCD163 was established.IFA results indicated that the fluorescence of pCD163-Marc cells was significantly brighter than Marc-145 cells;Western blotting results indicated that the pCD163-Marc cells could express higher levels of CD163 and the expression level was 8.7 times higher than Marc-145 cells.The pCD163-Marc cell line could be stably passaged for 20 passages and the expression level of CD163 was similar with different passages, which would be a valuable tool for facilitating virus propagation and vaccine production.     

Alveolar macrophage graded hemosiderin score from bronchoalveolar lavage in horses with exercise-induced pulmonary hemorrhage and controls

The objective of this study was to determine if a quantitative scoring system for evaluation of hemosiderin content of alveolar macrophages obtained by bronchoalevolar lavage provides a more sensitive test for the detection of exercise-induced pulmonary hemorrhage (EIPH) in horses than does endoscopy of the lower airways. A sample population composed of 74 Standardbred racehorses aged 2-5 years was used. Horses were grouped as either control (EIPH-negative) or EIPH-positive based on history and repeated postexertional endoscopic evaluation of the bronchial airways. Bronchoalveolar lavage was performed and cytocentrifuge slides were stained with Perl's Prussian blue. Alveolar macrophages were scored for hemosiderin content by a method described by Golde and associates to obtain the total hemosiderin score (THS). Test performance criteria were determined with a contingency table. All subjects had some degree of hemosiderin in the alveolar macrophages, regardless of group. The distribution of cells among the different grades followed a significantly different pattern for the control group versus horses with EIPH (P < .05). When using a THS of 75 as a cutoff point, the THS test was found to have a sensitivity of 94% and a specificity of 88%. The level of agreement beyond chance, between the EIPH status and the THS test result was very good (Cohen's kappa = 74%). The conclusion was made that careful assessment and scoring of alveolar macrophages for hemosiderin by means of the Golde scoring system shows promise as a more sensitive approach than repeated postexertional endoscopy alone to detect EIPH.     

Do camels (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Camelus dromedarius</Emphasis>) play an epidemiological role in the spread of Shiga Toxin producing <Emphasis Type="Italic">Escherichia coli</Emphasis> (STEC) infection?

In the present work, faecal and serum samples from 400 camels were investigated for the presence of Shiga Toxin producing E.coli (STEC) and Anti-Shiga Toxin (Anti-Stx) antibodies, respectively. The used samples were obtained from adult male camels of five east African countries (Egypt, Somalia, Djibouti, Kenya and Sudan) between the years 2002-2004. One E.coli isolate per camel was randomly selected to be cultured on Gassner, Chromocult and sorbit agar for the detection of O157:H7 strains. In the same time, a Stx-specific PCR screening was performed for the isolates using the shiga toxin specific primers Mk1-Mk2. Vero cells were also used for shiga toxin neutralization assay. None of the investigated isolates reacted positively with the Stx-specific primers. Also, none of the studied sera could neutralize the Stx on tissue culture. The obtained results indicate that camels do not play any significant epidemiological role in STEC infection and transmission. The possible reasons for the absence of STEC in the investigated samples are discussed in brief.     

Pathological, ultrastructural, and immunohistochemical changes caused by Lelystad virus in experimentally induced infections of mystery swine disease (synonym: porcine epidemic abortion and respiratory syndrome (PEARS))

The pathogenicity and pathogenesis of Lelystad virus was studied in six 6-day-old SPF piglets. A third passage of the agent was propagated on porcine alveolar macrophages and intranasally inoculated into pigs. Pigs were killed at hours 24, 48, 60, and 72, and on days 6 and 8 after inoculation. From day 2 on pigs developed diffuse interstitial pneumonia with focal areas of catarrhal pneumonia, and from this day on splenic red pulp macrophages were enlarged and vacuolated. Lelystad virus was re-isolated from the lungs of infected pigs from day 2 after inoculation. Lelystad virus antigens were detected by immunohistochemical techniques in bronchiolar epithelium and alveolar cells, and in spleen cells of infected pigs from day 2 after inoculation. Ultrastructural examination of tissues by electron microscopy revealed degenerating alveolar macrophages and epithelial cells in lungs and nasal mucosa, with excessive vacuolation of the endoplasmic reticulum. Although the respiratory tract seems to be the target organ for this virus, macrophages in other organs, such as the spleen, can also be infected. This preference for macrophages may impair immunological defences.     

Immunohistochemical detection of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus using colloidal gold.

Two cytopathic agents were isolated on porcine alveolar macrophages following inoculation with homogenates of lung tissues from pigs showing respiratory problems. These isolates were identified as porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) virus isolates by indirect immunofluorescence using a PRRS virus (PRRSV) specific monoclonal antibody (MAb) and were designated as LHVA-92-1 and LHVA-92-2. Immunogold electron microscopy using a porcine PRRS positive serum pool and protein A-gold resulted in an intense labelling of aggregates of viral particles. Dark specific cytoplasmic staining of porcine alveolar macrophages infected with both virus isolates could be observed by immunogold silver staining (IGSS) using the specific MAb. This method proved effective in detecting PRRSV antigens in several ethanol-fixed tissues of piglets intranasally inoculated with the supernatants of macrophages infected with each isolate. Immunogold silver staining was also successfully used for the detection of PRRSV antigens on sections of formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded lung tissues and on frozen sections of lungs. The present results indicate that colloidal gold may be useful for the identification and immunohistochemical detection of PRRSV in tissues.