Parametric estimation of soil physical functions

Relationships between the penetration resistance, water content, and aggregate water stability were experimentally determined for aggregates of ordinary chernozems from the Orenburg region and approximated by nonlinear functions. The approximation parameters had a physical significance; in most cases, they were statistically significant and could be used to estimate the differences between the aggregates of different sizes from the chernozems taken under forest, meadow, and agricultural land. The parametric estimation of soil physical functions depends on the type of mathematical function, whose parameters have physical significance; the statistical significance of the approximation parameters; and (in comparing different objects) the significance of the difference between the approximation parameters of the experimental relationships according to the function selected.     

Changes in the physical properties of typical chernozems of Kursk oblast under the conditions of a long-term stationary experiment

The light clayey typical chernozems were studied on the fields of a long-term experiment on continuous fallowing performed by the Kursk Research Institute of Agroindustrial Production. The experiment was initiated in 1964. It includes the following variants: bare fallow, fallow with NPK application, fallow with manure application, idle land, and cropland under traditional cereal rotation. The fundamental physical properties of the chernozems, such as the particle-size distribution, the aggregate-size distribution, the water stability of the aggregates, the specific surface (as determined by the methods of the equilibrium desorption of water vapor and nitrogen), the mechanical stability of the air-dried aggregates, and the penetration resistance have not changed significantly under the impact of fertilizers and manure application. At the same time, reliable changes have taken place in the physicomechanical properties of the chernozem, including, in particular, the strength of the aggregates and the dependence of the penetration resistance on the water content. This attests to changes in the structural bonds between the soil particles under the impact of the fertilizers. An exponential equation describing the dependence of the penetration resistance on the soil’s water content in the range from the liquid limit to the plastic limit has been suggested. The analysis of the approximation parameters of this equation shows that the application of manure increases the dilatant characteristics of the chernozem and lowers its penetration resistance at the given water content. Reliably higher values of the penetration resistance have been found in the soil of the cropland, which may be related to the somewhat coarser soil texture in this experimental variant.     

渭北不同园龄苹果园土壤团聚体状况及演变趋势研究

为了探索果业生产和果园管理措施对土壤质量的影响,选取了渭北旱源苹果主产区彬县10a幼龄和21a老龄苹果园0~40 cm土壤为研究对象,以农田为对照,采用干筛法和湿筛法研究了不同种植年限果园土壤团聚状况与演变趋势。结果表明:渭北地区土壤机械稳定性团聚体以0.25 mm微团聚体为优势级别,仅0~20 cm处随园龄递增果园土壤团聚化趋势较为明显,0.25 mm土壤团聚体含量(DSAC0.25)、平均重量直径(MWD)和几何平均直径(GMD)均显著增大,团聚体分形维数(D)递减,但是,10~0.25 mm和5~1 mm最有价值团聚体和团聚体系数(KCTP)均在递减。渭北土壤水稳性团聚组成中约60%为0.25 mm微团聚体,在0~30 cm处土壤水稳性团聚体的MWD、GMD和WSAC0.25呈现为农田(对照CK)10a果园21a果园,随园龄递增有明显增大趋势。0.25 mm团聚体的破坏率(PAD0.25)随园龄增加显著增大,递增幅度随土层深度增加而递减。相关分析表明,土壤总有机碳(TOC)、颗粒态有机碳(POC)与机械稳定性团聚体各项指标呈极显著相关,土壤碳酸钙含量、黏粒含量与水稳定团聚体多项指标呈极显著相关,PAD0.25与土壤理化性质呈显著相关。研究表明,果树种植在表观上明显提高了渭北地区表层0~20 cm土壤机械稳定性大团聚体数量,增强了土壤抗风蚀能力,但却显著降低了土壤团聚体的农艺质量及其稳定性,果园土壤团聚体的农艺质量显著退化与有机物及碳酸钙含量递减有着直接关系。     

贡嘎山天然林和盐亭人工林土壤侵蚀研究

 为了解长江上游代表性林区土壤侵蚀及相关土壤性质对土壤侵蚀的影响,通过取样分析、计算土壤侵蚀间接指标及其与有机质含量、土壤团聚体稳定性、土壤渗透性能等因素的定量关系。结果表明:长江上游区域贡嘎山亚高山天然林区表层土壤侵蚀率较小,盐亭紫色土丘陵区人工林区表层土壤侵蚀率较大。相关系数和回归分析表明土壤有机质含量、土壤团聚体稳定性、土壤渗透性能等因素对土壤侵蚀率具有较大影响,均达到了0.01极显著性置信水平。     

Effects of grazing on soil physical properties and soil erodibility in semiarid grassland of the Northern Loess Plateau (China)

Grazing animals provide a livelihood for farmers, but they may also produce adverse environmental effects. We investigated whether grazing leads to deterioration of soil physical properties that subsequently increases topsoil erodibility. We sampled three sites (an ungrazed grassland, a continuously grazed grassland, and a track trampled by stock) on the northern Loess Plateau of China. The bulk density, water content, proportion of stable aggregates, infiltration rate, and resistance to scouring were determined for each soil sample. The results showed that the track had the highest soil bulk density and the lowest soil water content, proportion of stable aggregates, infiltration rate, and ability to resist scouring. The ungrazed plots had the best results for these parameters, in terms of reduced erosion. Soil bulk density and the proportion of stable aggregates differed significantly with depth beneath the track. However, the effect of depth on water content, infiltration rate, and the soil resistance to scouring was not significant at any sampling site. The ability of the soil to resist scouring was negatively correlated with the soil's bulk density and positively correlated with the soil's water content, infiltration rate, and proportion of stable aggregates. Thus, soil physical properties played an important role in determining soil erodibility. Grazing and trampling by livestock therefore appear to cause deterioration of soil physical properties and to increase soil erodibility.     

耕作方式对东北黑土坡耕地土壤物理性状及根系垂直分布的影响

为了明确耕作方式对东北薄层黑土坡耕地土壤物理性状以及玉米根系垂直分布的影响,该研究以东北薄层黑土坡耕地土壤为研究对象,设置免耕和翻耕2种耕作方式,研究耕作方式对不同坡位土壤水稳性团聚体粒径分布与稳定性、土壤容重、土壤孔隙度、土壤贯入阻力以及玉米根系在垂直方向主要分布深度的影响,并进一步探究各指标间的相互关系.结果表明,...     

Flow and deformation behavior at the microscale of soils from several long‐term potassium fertilization trials in Germany

The effect of K fertilization on microstructural soil stability is rarely analyzed until now although the ambiguous impact on bulk soil structure was reported quite often, e.g., with regard to higher erodibility on the one hand and higher water storage on the other. Soil material from different long‐term fertilization trials in Germany was examined rheologically by means of an amplitude sweep test where the samples were subjected to oscillating shearing with increasing deflection. The resulting shear stress was recorded, and the maximum stress denoted the maximum shear strength of the sample. Results showed an ambiguous influence of K which depends strongly on the soil properties. On the one hand, an increased ion concentration in the soil solution leads to increasing attractive forces as defined by the DLVO theory and therefore higher shear resistance. With increasing desiccation, K⁺ like other salts can precipitate at the contact areas between particles and lead to cementation. On the other hand, K⁺ as a monovalent ion impedes covalent and ionic bonding between clay minerals which holds true for most of the examined soil types while only sandy soils showed an increase in soil strength due to K fertilization. Potassium depletion further resulted in increased interaction of fertilization with other impact factors, e.g., climate and soil properties. Thus, the destabilizing effect of K⁺ was more pronounced under liming as without liming. Subsequent modeling with selected soil parameters confirmed the high influence of matric potential. The modeling also revealed the interactions with other soil parameters, e.g., pH, oxides, texture, exchangeable cations as well as lack or surplus of K in relation to recommended K content. In conclusion, microstructural stability of soil depends on several soil parameters and requires the inclusion of many chemical and physical soil properties.     

Influence of soil properties on the aggregation of some Mediterranean soils and the use of aggregate size and stability as land degradation indicators

Soil aggregation in relation to other soil properties was studied along a climatological transect in the Southeast of Spain. Three sites were selected along this transect ranging from semiarid to subhumid climatological conditions. The aggregate size distribution, the macro and microaggregate stability of the superficial soil horizon and their relations with other soil properties were analysed. Large aggregates (>10, 10–5, 5–2 mm) were present in highest proportions in the most arid of the studied areas. These large aggregates were associated with high values of water-stable microaggregates; however, they did not improve soil structure and are related to high bulk densities and low water retention. Aggregates 1–0.105 mm were positively correlated to medium, fine, very fine sand and silt fractions and to organic matter. Aggregates <0.105 mm were positively correlated to organic matter and clay content. Small aggregate sizes (1–0.105 and <0.105 mm) had a positive influence on soil water retention and they seem a good indicator of soil degradation.Water stability of microaggregates showed a positive correlation with clay content while the stability of the macroaggregates depended on the organic matter content when the organic matter content was greater than 5 or 6%. Below that threshold the carbonate content was strongly correlated with aggregate stability. A general conceptual scheme of associations between aggregate size distribution, water-stable microaggregation and textural characteristics for the area was developed.The land use history affecting soil overlaps the pattern of climatological situations and has to be taken into account. Aggregate size distribution and stability can be used as indicator of soil degradation, but not as a unique parameter.     

Impact of long‐term mineral and organic fertilizer application on the water stability,wettability and porosity of aggregates obtained from two loamy soils

The impact of fertilizer application on soil aggregate stability is of increasing interest to soil scientists. Aggregate water stability depends primarily on soil organic matter. We studied silty loam and loamy sand aggregates from three long‐term fertilizer treatments (control, pig manure and NPK) which significantly altered the quantity of organic matter. A new approach to examining aggregate stability was used: soil aggregates were immersed in methanol‐water solutions with methanol at 0, 20, 40 and 60% concentration (C), and non‐disrupted aggregates were separated after 30 minutes. The aggregate resistance R(C) against each solution was taken as the percentage of stable aggregates. Overall resistance of the aggregates was taken as the R_tot parameter given by the product of four R(C) values. The R(C) values of all aggregates were positively correlated with C. The R(60) values were independent of the applied fertilizer. The R(0) value for silty loam aggregates ranged from 28% (pig manure) to 7% (NPK), while that for loamy sand equalled 7–9% in all cases. The R(20) values were most effective at differentiating the soils and the fertilizer treatments. However, the R_tot value was a better indicator of aggregate stability. Greater differences in stabilities of aggregates were noted in loamy sand. Mineral fertilizer application seemed to decrease aggregate resistance in both soils. Total organic carbon and nitrogen content in all non‐disrupted aggregates were negatively correlated with methanol concentration (C) of the solution applied for aggregate separation. The largest decrease was for the pig manure treatment, and the smallest was for the control. Porosity and pore size distributions of the aggregates were derived from micro‐tomography and approximated to lognormal pore size distributions. Larger porosities and pores were found in water‐stable aggregates than in methanol‐stable aggregates. It seems that the dominant mechanisms for aggregate instability during fast wetting were not related only to the pore air compression, but to weakening of attractive forces between aggregate particles by water.     

胶结物质驱动的土壤团聚体形成过程与稳定机制

团聚体是土壤的基本组成单元，影响着土壤水、气、热及养分的保持和运移。胶结物质在团聚体形成过程中起关键作用，但不同类型胶结物质在土壤团聚体中所起作用与机理尚缺乏系统总结。本论文回顾了土壤团聚体相关的关键理论，梳理了不同地理环境与人为活动下土壤团聚体中胶结物质类型、形态、转化与作用机制，探讨了胶结物质对土壤团聚体结构与稳定性的影响，提出了胶结物质驱动的土壤团聚体自组织形成过程模型，阐明了土壤团聚体的形成与转化机制。最后对土壤团聚体研究领域未来的发展进行展望，特别是在土壤团聚体的原位分析方法、土壤团聚体形成过程的定量化描述、土壤团聚体稳定性在景观尺度上的空间结构、良好土壤结构体培育的产品与技术研发等方面还有待加强。这些工作的开展将对培育良好土壤团聚体、揭示土壤物质循环与演化过程、提高土壤质量和生产力等具有重要的科学意义和生产实践价值。     

The soil aggregates stability index (ASI) and its extreme values

A method for determining maximum–minimum values of the soil aggregates stability index (ASI) is presented. This allows for the calculation of the range of variations of the soil aggregates stability index for destructive changes of soil aggregation and for assuming criterion of the soil aggregation stability evaluation. The data used for the calculations are distributions of soil aggregate frequencies before and after destruction. On the base of the ASI, determined for the tested soil and the range of its possible variations, other indices that characterise the relative nature of aggregate variations have been defined. The presented methodology for the analysis of the soil aggregation stability index has been illustrated for three soils and various methods of water stability determination.     

苜蓿作物轮作模式对土壤团聚体稳定性及有机碳的影响

本研究以苜蓿?作物轮作试验为研究对象,探讨了苜蓿?苜蓿(L-L)、苜蓿?休闲(L-F)、苜蓿?小麦(L-W)、苜蓿?玉米(L-C)、苜蓿?马铃薯(L-P)和苜蓿?谷子(L-M)6种轮作模式对陇中黄土高原雨养农田苜蓿土壤团聚体稳定性以及土壤总有机碳含量的影响。结果表明:不同轮作模式下土壤机械稳定性团聚体以≥0.25 mm团聚体为优势团聚体,均占72.17%以上,而土壤水稳性团聚体以0.25 mm团聚体为优势团聚体,均占95.18%以上。随着土层深度的增加,各处理≥0.25 mm的团聚体数量及平均重量直径(MWD)均随之增加,而水稳性大团聚体数量及MWD值无明显规律性。与L-L处理相比,L-C和L-P处理0~30 cm耕层土壤≥0.25 mm的团聚体含量分别增加5.94%和1.12%,L-C处理的MWD表现为最高,而其他轮作处理则不同程度降低了≥0.25 mm团聚体含量及MWD;随着土层深度的增加,6种不同轮作模式的土壤有机碳含量均呈现逐渐降低的趋势,在0~30 cm的耕层土壤,较之L-L处理,L-W、L-C、L-P和L-M处理均从不同程度上降低了土壤有机碳含量,其中L-P处理有机碳含量最低,降低了18.68%。相关性分析表明,土壤总有机碳分别与2~5 mm、1~2 mm、0.5~1 mm和0.25~0.5 mm粒径的水稳性团聚体比例以及MWD表现出极显著正相关,而与0.25 mm粒径的水稳性团聚体呈极显著负相关。综上所述,苜蓿?玉米轮作模式能明显增加土壤团聚体机械稳定性,而不同苜蓿?作物轮作模式对土壤团聚体的水稳性影响较小,土壤有机碳含量在很大程度上影响着土壤水稳性团粒结构的形成与稳定性,二者密切相关。     

季节性冻融对色季拉森林土壤团聚体稳定性的影响

为分析季节性冻融对土壤团聚体稳定性的影响,以藏东南色季拉山森林土壤为研究对象,通过野外控制性试验利用湿筛法测定团聚体组成,分析了0—10 cm, 10—20 cm, 20—30 cm深度土层各粒径团粒结构变化,以及土壤含水量(SWC),0.25 mm水稳性团聚体含量(WSA)、平均质量直径(MWD)、平均几何直径(GMD)、分形维数D、可蚀性K值各指标之间的关系。结果表明：(1)季节性冻融导致大团粒含量减少,小团粒含量增加,土壤结构失调。(2)含水量是影响团聚体稳定性的重要因素之一。(3)季节性冻融作用整体上导致MWD,GMD变小,D值与K值变大,降低了土壤团聚体稳定性。(4)当土壤冻融次数在一定范围内STF-One中,WSA有所增加,土壤稳定性有所增强。(5)土壤团聚体WSA,MWD和GMD均与D值和K值呈负相关。(6)在SFT-Ys类型土壤中土壤结构变化,0.5 mm粒级是重要临界点。综上,研究为季节性冻融对土壤稳定性的影响提供数据支持,为冻土潜在受侵蚀情况提供理论依据。     

冻融循环对黑土团聚体稳定性与微结构特征的影响

冻融循环作用下的土壤结构变化被认为是融雪期黑土坡面土壤侵蚀加剧的主要原因之一,土壤团聚体稳定性与团聚体微结构是影响土壤可蚀性的关键因子.基于控制条件土壤冻融模拟试验,采用湿筛法、扫描电子显微技术(SEM)和Image-Pro Plus(IPP)图像分析处理相结合的方法,分析了冻融循环过程中黑土团聚体微结构的动态变化特征...     

黑龙滩水库消落带植被恢复模式对土壤水稳性团聚体组成及其稳定性的影响

[目的] 为阐明水库消落带不同植被恢复模式对土壤水稳性团聚体组成及其稳定性的影响。[方法] 以川中丘陵区黑龙滩水库消落带人工恢复与自然恢复植被下的土壤为研究对象,利用湿筛法测定分析土壤水稳性团聚体组成特征及其稳定性指标。[结果] 消落带土壤＞0.25 mm水稳性大团聚体含量与未淹水对照相比降低4.21%,其中,自然恢复植被下土壤水稳性大团聚体含量较对照下降12.27%,人工恢复植被下大团聚体含量较对照增加3.84%;不同植被恢复模式下土壤水稳性团聚体组成差异显著(p＜0.05),人工恢复植被下土壤大团聚体含量(69.48%)显著高于自然恢复模式(43.20%);消落带土壤水稳性团聚体稳定性随水位高程增加而升高,团聚体稳定性指标＞0.25 mm水稳性团聚体含量(R_0.25)、平均重量直径(MWD)、几何平均直径(GMD)人工恢复模式下均大于自然恢复模式,团聚体分形维数(D)、土壤可蚀性因子(K)与团聚体破坏率(PAD)人工恢复模式小于自然恢复模式,表明人工恢复模式下土壤水稳性团聚体稳定性、土壤抗蚀性高于自然恢复模式。[结论] 黑龙滩水库消落带在淹水后土壤团聚体稳定性下降,但人工恢复模式能有效改善土壤团粒结构,研究结果可为黑龙滩水库消落带土壤结构稳定性评价及植被恢复提供科学依据。     

黄土高原植被自然恢复中土壤团聚体特征

Field investigations and laboratory analysis were conducted to study the characteristics of soil water-stable aggregates during vegetation rehabilitation in typical grassland soils of the hilly-gullied loess area. The relationship between water- stable aggregates and other soil properties was analyzed using canonical correlation analysis and principal component analysis. The results show that during the natural revegetation, the aggregates 〉 5 mm dominated and constituted between 50% and 80% of the total soil water-stable aggregates in most of the soil layers. The 2-5 mm aggregate class was the second main component. The mean value of water-stable aggregates 〉 5 mm within the 0-2 m soil profile under different plant communities decreased in the following order： Stipa grandis 〉 Stipa bungeana Trin. 〉 Artemisia sacrorum Ledeb. 〉 Thymus mongolicus Ronn. 〉 Hierochloe odorata （L.） Beauv. Clay, organic matter, and total N were the key factors that influenced the water stability of the aggregates. Total N and organic matter were the main factors that affected the water stability of the aggregates 〉 5 mm and 0.5-1 mm in size. The contents of Fe2O3, Al2O3, and physical clay （〈 0.01 mm） were the main factors which affected the water stability of the 1-2 and 0.25-0.5 mm aggregates.     

不同竹林土壤抗蚀性指标对比分析研究

竹子作为重要的森林资源之一,具有生长迅速、耐旱、抗性强、多年生的特点,同时竹林有美化环境、涵养水源、保持水土的功能和很高的开发利用价值,在西南地区退耕还林中起着重要的作用。为研究不同竹林之间的土壤抗蚀性差别,选择昆明西山的灰金竹林、慈竹林、实心竹林,通过对几种竹林的土壤有机质含量、水稳性团聚体风干率、水稳性指数及分散性指数、土壤容重、孔隙度和地表径流泥沙含量多个土壤抗蚀性指标的测定和分析,将含沙量作为因变量,其余指标作为自变量通过Excel统计和SPSS方差分析、主成分分析,得出了它们在不同指标下的土壤抗蚀性的强弱关系。综合分析表明:>0.5 mm水稳性团聚体风干率和有机质含量是反映竹林土壤抗蚀性的最佳指标,3种竹林间土壤抗蚀性强弱关系为灰金竹林>实心竹林>慈竹林。     

秸秆覆盖与保水剂对土壤结构、蒸发及入渗过程的作用机制

通过保水剂、秸秆覆盖、灌水等措施的实施,对冬小麦收获后各相应处理土壤样品的土壤结构特征、蒸发及入渗过程机制进行研究。结果表明：不同保水措施增加了土壤有机质含量,降低了土壤密度,提高了土壤结构的稳定性,降低了土壤团聚体的分形维数,减少了土壤水分无效蒸发,提高了土壤入渗能力;土壤入渗过程曲线拟合方程符合函数y=a＋be-cx,稳定入渗速率变化基本和a值的变化一致,c值决定了入渗速率降低的速度;经过小麦生命周期后,与灌水处理相比,施用保水剂后不进行灌水,土壤结构稳定性相对提高,土壤累计入渗量增加,土壤无效蒸发降低;玉米收获后未翻耕的样地提高了土壤有机质含量、土壤水稳性团聚体含量和土壤入渗性能。     

聚乙烯微塑料浓度对黑土团聚体特征及其稳定性的影响

  目的  微塑料会与土壤颗粒及团聚体相互作用而影响土壤的稳定性,探究微塑料浓度对黑土团聚体特征及其稳定性的影响,以期为农田土壤（微）塑料污染及土壤健康评价提供数据基础。  方法  通过大豆盆栽实验,研究自然条件下不同微塑料浓度（0%、0.1%、0.5%、1%、2%、5%）对黑土团聚体组成、团聚体稳定性（大团聚体含量R _{> 0.25}）、土壤团聚体特征指标（平均质量直径MWD、几何均重直径GMD、分形维数FD）的影响。  结果  不同微塑料浓度处理中,< 0.25 mm的机械稳定性团聚体含量比例最小,且 > 2 mm和 < 0.25 mm的团聚体含量比例随着微塑料浓度的增加而增加;> 2 mm的水稳性团聚体含量比例最小,< 0.25 mm的水稳性团聚体含量比例随着微塑料浓度的增加而增加;但在1%浓度时,机械稳定性和水稳性团聚体含量比例均与其他浓度的趋势相反;无植物种植的团聚体变化与种植物的相似。土壤大团聚体（R _{> 0.25}）的含量比例随着微塑料浓度的增加而显著减小,当微塑料浓度为1%时,其含量比例略低于对照试验（CK）。不同采样期,大豆成熟期的土壤机械稳定性团聚体和水稳性团聚体的MWD、GMD均比花期的小,而花期的团聚体分形维数比成熟期高,表明随着大豆生长及微塑料的作用,土壤团聚体稳定性降低。通过相关性分析表明,MWD与GMD呈极显著正相关关系,且二者均与FD值呈极显著负相关,即土壤团聚体MWD和GMD总体显著增大,FD值则显著减小,从而表征土壤颗粒团聚性下降。此外,当土壤中微塑料浓度为1%时,土壤团聚体分形维数最小,即土壤团聚作用增强。  结论  土壤中微塑料累积浓度越高,对土壤团聚体产生的破坏作用越强,导致土壤颗粒间聚合能力减弱,土壤中微塑料浓度为1%是否可作为影响黑土团聚体稳定性变化的阈值还有待后续研究,以期为全面评估微塑料对土壤质量的影响提供依据。     

Effect of water content,bulk density,and aggregate size on mechanical characteristics of Aquults soil blocks and aggregates from subtropical China

Purpose

Soil aggregate mechanical characteristics can significantly affect soil strength and are important soil properties to predict soil erodibility. However, in most research, the aggregate mechanical strength is always measured under air-dried condition, and limited information is available about the mechanical strength of aggregates and soil blocks with different water contents. This study evaluated the effects of water content, bulk density, and aggregate size on mechanical properties of soil blocks and aggregates.

Materials and methods

Shear strength (τ) parameters (φ and c) of soil blocks in different states (undisturbed and remoulded) and tensile strength (TS) of aggregates were determined in the laboratory on two soils derived from Quaternary red clay (Q) and shale (S) with variations in water content, bulk density, and aggregate size.

Results and discussion

The results indicated that the φ values were higher in drier and denser soil and showed no obvious variation with varying aggregate size. The c values increased first and then decreased with increasing water content and decreasing aggregate size and increased with increasing bulk density. The water content corresponding to the rapid decrease of the c value appeared to be related to soil properties. Tensile strength increased with decreasing water content in all sizes of aggregates. It decreased with increasing aggregate size at a relative low water content (3.2–7.3 %), but increased with increasing aggregate size at a relative high water content (10.6–14.8 %). The effect of soil moisture on soil strength varied with soil states. Thus, water content, bulk density, and aggregate size have significant effects on the mechanical properties of the soil blocks and aggregates.

Conclusions

The result from this research may contribute to a better understanding of the soil erosion resistance of Aquults from the perspective of soil mechanics.