Water-repellent soil and its relationship to granularity, surface roughness and hydrophobicity: a materials science view

Considerable soil water repellency has been observed at a wide range of locations worldwide. The soil exhibiting water repellency is found within the upper part of the soil profile. The reduced rate of water infiltration into these soils leads to severe runoff erosion, and reduction of plant growth. Soil water repellency is promoted by drying of soil, and can be induced by fire or intense heating of soil containing hydrophobic organic matter. Recent studies outside soil science have shown how enhancement of the natural water repellency of materials, both porous and granular, by surface texture (i.e. surface roughness, pattern and morphology) into super‐hydrophobicity is possible. The similarities between these super‐hydrophobic materials and observed properties of water‐repellent soil are discussed from a non‐soil scientist, materials‐based perspective. A simple model is developed for a hydrophobic granular surface and it is shown that this can provide a mechanism for enhancement of soil water repellency through the relative size and spacing of grains and pores. The model provides a possible explanation for why soil water repellency should be more prevalent under dry conditions than wet. Consequences for water runoff, raindrop splash and soil erosion are discussed.     

单颗粒液滴飞溅对颗粒起动的影响

通过室内模拟降雨试验,探究单颗粒液滴飞溅对泥沙颗粒起动的影响。试验共设计4种地表坡度（0,15°,25°,35°）及4种粒径的均匀沙（0.098~0.104,0.104~0.5,0.5~0.78,1~1.4 mm）,选取当量直径为4.5 mm的液滴进行模拟试验,同时利用高吸水树脂材料泡发后的水球作为对照组。结果表明,颗粒直径和坡度的变化对颗粒起动的影响较为显著,飞溅子液滴对液滴溅蚀具有重要意义。随着颗粒直径的增大,颗粒的起动逐渐由液滴冲击和子液滴飞溅裹挟共同作用转变为液滴冲击动能传递为主,飞溅携带为辅。当颗粒直径相同时,坡度的增大导致飞溅沙粒不再均衡,斜坡下方的颗粒飞溅量和位移随坡度的增大而增大。坡度越大,下方颗粒溅蚀深度与上方的差距也越大,导致上方颗粒失去支撑,整体失稳垮塌,发生微小滑坡。同种粒径时,树脂水球溅蚀坑的宽深比明显小于相同直径的液滴溅蚀坑,液滴溅蚀量远大于树脂水球直接撞击作用下起动的颗粒量,子液滴的拖曳对颗粒起动具有重要意义。     

Comparing surface erosion processes in four soils from the Loess Plateau under extreme rainfall events

This research aims to improve erosion control practice in the Loess Plateau, by studying the surface erosion processes, including splash, sheet/interrill and rill erosion in four contrasting soils under high rainfall intensity (120 mm h⁻¹) with three-scale indoor artificial experiments. Four contrasting soils as sandy loam, sandy clay loam, clay loam and loamy clay were collected from different parts of the Loess Plateau. The results showed that sediment load was significantly impacted by soil properties in all three sub-processes. Splash rate (4.0–21.6 g m⁻²∙min⁻¹) was highest in sandy loam from the north part of the Loess Plateau and showed a negative power relation with the mean weight diameter of aggregates after 20 min of rainfall duration. The average sediment load by sheet/interrill erosion (6.94–42.86 g m⁻²∙min⁻¹) was highest in clay loam from middle part of the Loess Plateau, and the stable sediment load after 20 min showed a positive power relation with the silt content in soil. The average sediment load increased dramatically by rill and interrill erosion (21.03–432.16 g m⁻²∙min⁻¹), which was highest in loamy clay from south part of the Loess Plateau. The average sediment load after the occurrence of rill showed a positive power relation with clay content and a negative power relation with soil organic matter content. The impacts of slope gradient on the runoff rate and sediment load also changed with soil properties. The critical factors varied for different processes, which were the aggregate size for splash erosion, the content of silt particles and slope gradient for sheet/interrill erosion, and the content of clay particles, soil organic matter and slope gradient for rill erosion. Based on the results of the experiments, specific erosion control practices were proposed by targeting certain erosion processes in areas with different soil texture and different distribution of slope gradient. The findings from this study should support the improvement of erosion prediction and cropland management in different regions of the Loess Plateau.     

The effect of addition of a wettable biochar on soil water repellency

The potential of biochar to ameliorate soil water repellency has not been widely studied. Previous studies have focused on the potential for biochar to induce or exacerbate existing water repellency rather than alleviate it. This study investigates the effect of adding wettable biochar to water‐repellent soil by comparing the water drop penetration times (WDPTs) of a control and biochar‐amended soil. The potential of wettable biochar to act as a physical amendment to water‐repellent soil was evaluated by mixing coarsely‐ground biochar (CGB, particle size range 250–2000 µm) or finely‐ground biochar (FGB, particle size range < 250 µm) with one strongly and one severely naturally water‐repellent soil in various quantities, and then measuring the WDPT for each mixture. When biochar particles did not fall within the size range of existing soil particles, an initial increase in both mean WDPT (WDPT_M) and variation in WDPT was observed with small additions of biochar. These effects possibly result from increased surface roughness and inhibition of infiltration by the suspension of drops above the average soil–air interface at a few hydrophobic points. Both CGB and FGB reduced soil water repellency, FGB more effectively than CGB. The addition of 10% w/w FGB reduced soil WDPT by 50%, and 25% FGB eliminated repellency. Direct absorption of water by biochar and an increase in soil surface area in contact with water are the predominant physical mechanisms involved. This exploratory study suggests biochar has the potential to amend water‐repellent soil.     

土壤理化性质与土壤溅蚀速率的相关性研究

土壤溅蚀是土壤侵蚀的初始阶段,是降雨雨滴直接打击土壤表层引起的土壤颗粒分散和位移发生的过程。为研究土壤理化性质与土壤溅蚀速率的相关性,研究通过人工模拟降雨溅蚀试验测定土壤溅蚀速率,运用SPSS 20.0软件,对土壤理化性质与土壤溅蚀速率进行了Pearson相关系数分析。结果表明:土壤渗透性、分散率、团聚度和土壤粒级与土壤溅蚀速率相关性最大。土壤的渗透系数在整个降雨历时阶段对土壤的溅蚀速率一直呈现负影响。分散率在降雨历时为15min时对土壤溅蚀速率呈显著负影响。团聚度对土壤溅蚀速率的影响由T=15min时的显著正相关变成T=20min时的极显著正相关。土壤粒级和土壤溅蚀速率相关性很大,且关系较为复杂。相较于其他4种粒级中,粒级范围在D0.002mm的土壤颗粒对土壤溅蚀速率影响最大,且在降雨历时为15~20min时,对土壤溅蚀速率皆有显著正相关性。另外,粒级范围在0.2≤D2mm和0.02≤D0.2mm的土壤颗粒分别在T=15min和T=20min时对土壤溅蚀速率有显著负相关性。土壤粒级对土壤溅蚀速率的相关性随降雨历时的变化可能与土壤结皮有关。     

有机质影响溅蚀破坏土壤团聚体的主要作用机制

土壤有机质是团聚体的重要组成部分,其在团聚体形成过程中作用机制已有大量研究,但有机质在团聚体破坏过程中起何种作用尚未明晰,其对团聚体破坏过程中雨滴机械打击和消散作用贡献的影响也有待深入研究。为研究不同有机质含量对土壤团聚体的影响,选取5种不同退耕还林年限的土壤为研究对象,利用95%酒精和超纯水作为降雨液体,分别在4个高度下(0.5、1、1.5和2 m)对其进行溅蚀试验。结果表明:随有机质含量的增加,团聚体稳定性逐渐增强,土壤对雨滴机械打击和消散作用的敏感程度越来越弱,土壤抵抗侵蚀的能力越来越强;降雨前后大团聚体数量随着有机质含量的增加逐渐趋近相似,且酒精雨滴作用下的大团聚体含量明显大于超纯水作用下的大团聚体含量;在相同的降雨动能条件下,有机质含量增加使消散作用的贡献率呈现减小的趋势,且其对消散作用的影响在降雨动能较小时较为显著。研究结果对深入理解溅蚀过程中团聚体稳定性评价以及团聚体破坏因子具有重要作用。     

土粒表面电场对土壤团聚体破碎及溅蚀的影响

团聚体是土壤结构的基本单元,其稳定性是评估土壤抗侵蚀能力的重要指标。土壤团聚体破碎是降雨溅蚀发生的关键一步。土粒表面电场对团聚体稳定性具有重要影响,必然也会深刻影响降雨溅蚀过程。该文以黄土母质发育的黄绵土和塿土为研究对象,采用不同浓度的电解质溶液定量调控土粒表面电场,研究不同电场强度对团聚体破碎及溅蚀的影响。结果发现:1)随电解质浓度的降低,土粒表面电位升高,表面电场增大,黄绵土和塿土团聚体平均重量直径减小,团聚体稳定性降低,降雨溅蚀量增大。2)电解质浓度小于10-2 mol/L,黄绵土和塿土表面电位绝对值分别高于202.0和231.6 mV,此时团聚体稳定性和溅蚀量变化不明显,表明表面电位202.0和231.6 mV分别是影响黄绵土和塿土团聚体稳定性及溅蚀的关键电位。3)随着土粒表面电场的减弱,团聚体破碎后释放的<0.15 mm微团聚体含量减小,>0.25 mm大团聚体含量增加,团聚体倾向于破碎为更大粒级的团聚体。4)电场作用下团聚体的破碎特征对降雨溅蚀具有重要的影响,溅蚀量与团聚体破碎释放的<0.15 mm微团聚体含量呈显著正相关,与>0.25 mm大团聚体含量呈显著负相关。上述结果表明,当降雨进入土壤后,对于干燥的土壤而言,土壤溶液电解质浓度被迅速稀释,土粒表面产生强大的电场,该电场通过影响团聚体破碎程度进而影响降雨溅蚀。该研究有助于加深对降雨溅蚀的科学认识,同时也为土壤团聚体稳定性及降雨溅蚀的人为调控提供了一定的理论依据。     

Effect of slope borders in reducing splash erosion during sediment transport by rain-induced overland flow

Splash erosion plays a vital role in the loss of eroded materials. Unlike those in slope central areas, laterally ejected splashed materials in slope border areas cannot be replenished easily because slope edges prevent splash erosion particles from entering the slope. Thus, splashed materials in slope border areas are less than those in slope central areas because of the lack of source areas for splash-eroded materials. However, this phenomenon, called the slope border effect, has received minimal attention by researchers. The partially missing splash erosion induced by the slope border effect on sediment transport was investigated to understand the slope erosion mechanism further in this paper. A modified soil pan divided into four areas, namely, central erosion test area (length = 100 cm, width = 35 cm, depth = 45 cm), border erosion test area (length = 100 cm, width = 35 cm, depth = 45 cm), splash compensate border area (length = 110 cm, width = 30 cm, depth = 45 cm) and splash collection area (length = 100 cm, width = 2.5 cm, depth = 45 cm) was used to monitor diffusion and splash erosion under simulated rainfall. Results showed that the splash detachment rate increased with the increase in slope but initially decreased and then increased with the increase in rainfall intensity. The runoff rate and diffuse erosion rates for complete splash erosion (SE) treatments were higher than those without partial splash erosion (SE_L). Under low rainfall erosive power and runoff transport capacity (e.g., 5° slope and 60 mm h⁻¹), the transported clay in SE treatments was approximately 2% more than that in SE_L treatments. This amount changed to more than 2% sand under high rainfall and runoff erosive power. However, the mass fraction accounted for by silt particles in the sediments of the SE_L treatments was more than that in the SE treatments. Thus, the partially missing splash erosion can weaken the selective transport ability of runoff for sediments. The effect of missing partial splash erosion on diffuse erosion was enhanced with an increase in erosive power. The results of our paper will provide insights into the effect of the boundary effect zone of slope on soil erosion and its related mechanisms.     

雨滴机械打击和消散作用对土壤团聚体的破坏特征

土壤团聚体是土壤结构的基本单元,其稳定性是描述土壤抵抗侵蚀过程中破坏作用的重要指标。但溅蚀过程中,雨滴对团聚体的消散和机械打击两种破坏作用的相对贡献及其破坏机制尚未明晰。利用酒精和超纯水作为雨滴形成材料,模拟机械打击单独作用及消散和机械打击共同作用,分别在五个高度(0.5、1、1.5、2和2.5 m)对塿土和黄绵土进行溅蚀实验。结果表明:当降雨动能相同时,塿土的溅蚀率均小于黄绵土。同时,超纯水雨滴对土壤的机械打击和消散共同作用所导致的溅蚀率均大于酒精雨滴单一机械打击作用的溅蚀率。随着降雨动能增加,两种雨滴对两种土壤的溅蚀率均呈幂函数增加;团聚体因消散破坏作用和机械打击作用的溅蚀率均亦随之增加。但两种土壤的消散破坏作用和机械打击作用的贡献率分别随着降雨动能增加而减小和增加。在相同降雨动能时,塿土消散破坏作用的贡献率均大于黄绵土,而机械打击作用贡献率均小于黄绵土。研究结果对深入理解溅蚀过程中团聚体破坏机理及评价溅蚀过程中团聚体稳定性具有重要意义。     

A new splash cup to measure the kinetic energy of rainfall

Splash cups have long been successfully used for both the quantification of kinetic energy of rainfall and the detachability of soil particles by rainfall impact, the so‐called “splash erosion”. Measurements of kinetic energy, however, have been difficult to operate in the field especially in remote areas, on steep slopes, and in forests since boundary conditions need to be controlled precisely. This paper introduces a new splash cup based on Ellison's archetype that reliably and accurately measures kinetic energy as a function of sand loss under a large variety of conditions. The Tübingen splash cup (T splash cup) is relatively easy to operate under harsh field conditions, and it can be used in experimental designs with a large number of plots and replications at reasonably low costs. The cup is constructed from plastic laboratory flasks and plastic pipes from water‐supply equipments. The unit sand is held by a removable carrier system that can easily be replaced in the field. The splash cups have been calibrated in combination with a laser distrometer using a linear regression function with r² = 0.98. They measure kinetic energy over a wide range of rainfall intensities from 0.6 to 40 L m^–2 h^–1. Kinetic energy per area varies between 10 and 250 J m^–2. Two years of field test measurements in a subtropical forest ecosystem in China proved the reliability, durability, and usability of our new splash cups and allowed detecting differences in kinetic energy between different tree species and biodiversity levels.     

辽西低山丘陵区褐土和棕壤坡耕地溅蚀过程模拟

为揭示辽西低山丘陵区坡耕地典型土壤溅蚀特征,选取褐土和棕壤作为研究对象,采用人工模拟降雨试验对比研究2种土壤的溅蚀差异。结果表明:褐土和棕壤不同方向溅蚀率、净溅蚀率和总溅蚀率差异较大。不同降雨强度下,棕壤溅蚀率均随降雨历时呈现递减并趋于稳定的趋势;褐土溅蚀率随降雨历时的变化可以划分为缓慢增长阶段、迅速增长阶段、快速下降阶段和相对稳定阶段。褐土的小粒级颗粒完成迁移的降雨历时临界值与不同方向溅蚀率、净溅蚀率和总溅蚀率的降雨历时临界值一致,降雨历时为20~25 min;棕壤的小粒级颗粒完成迁移的降雨历时临界值与不同方向溅蚀率、净溅蚀率和总溅蚀率的降雨历时临界值一致,降雨历时为10~15 min。褐土向上坡溅蚀率、向下坡溅蚀率、净溅蚀率和总溅蚀率皆与降雨历时呈显著二次多项式关系,而棕壤向上坡溅蚀率、向下坡溅蚀率、净溅蚀率和总溅蚀率皆与降雨历时呈显著对数关系。     

模拟降雨条件下塿土的溅蚀特征试验研究

溅蚀在破坏土壤表层结构的同时为后续侵蚀提供丰富材料,以黄土高原典型土壤塿土为试验用土,通过模拟降雨试验,根据溅蚀速率、溅蚀前后土壤颗粒组成及表面强度变化指标,系统研究塿土的溅蚀特征。结果表明,溅蚀速率随降雨历时呈现幂函数变化,分为迅速降低、缓慢降低、趋于稳定3个阶段。土盘表面松散颗粒及利于溅蚀的粒级范围内颗粒的消耗、团聚体破碎及超渗产生的水层消耗雨滴能量、结皮的形成和发育分别是3个阶段的主要影响因素。在90mm/h的雨强下,塿土颗粒富集与耗损的临界粒径是0.05mm,雨滴打击分离粒级0.05mm颗粒,富集迁移粒级0.05mm颗粒。当含水率相等时,降雨历时越长贯入深度越浅。塿土表面强度随降雨历时增加,0~30min是塿土结皮形成的关键时期。塿土溅蚀过程是表土颗粒组成不断变化和表面强度逐渐完善的过程。     

Percolation characteristics of a water-repellent sandy forest soil

In a tracer experiment TDR transect measurements were made to study percolation behaviour in a 120‐year‐old pine stand (Pinus sylvestris) on a water‐repellent sandy soil (Haplic Arenosol). The experiment (with potassium iodide) showed an 80% labelling of the total flow in organic layers, whereas the area of transport in the mineral soil was sharply reduced to 12–30%. The average diameters of these preferential flow paths were about 8–15 cm. The TDR measurements indicate a homogeneous flow only for a short period from February until April. At this time of the year preferential flow is insignificant, because the soil is at approximately field capacity and not repellent to water. During summer (May to September) the soil dries out, and most precipitation results in preferential flow during this period. For any daily rainfall exceeding 10 mm, water infiltrates down to 1 m depth in the soil, which nevertheless, is still within the root zone. This kind of deep percolation results in the subsoil’s wetting to field capacity (pF 1.8) earlier than the topsoil. A one‐dimensional numerical model (SWAP) was used to simulate mean water balance with hydraulic functions with and without a water‐repellency term. From the results of our tracer experiment we showed that the de‐watering process in spring could be simulated well using the traditional piston flow concept, while the rewetting behaviour could be described more realistically using the mobile–immobile concept for water repellency.     

Effect of soil aggregate size on infiltration and erosion characteristics

Detachment of soil particles by the processes of splash from rainfall and shallow flow from surface runoff is influenced by soil cohesion, soil aggregate properties, and characteristics of this flow. We have evaluated relationships between rates of detachment, aggregate size, and tensile strength of the soil. Soil and water losses were determined in the laboratory from sieved air‐dry samples on three aggregate size ranges of two clay loam soils differing in particle‐size distribution and organic matter. Tensile strength was measured for each aggregate size range. The results showed that as clod size increased, detachment rates increased and interaggregate tensile strength decreased. Wash erosion increased as initial clod size increased despite a decrease in runoff. Final rates of loss by splash were greater from the largest clods than from the smaller clods. Finally, splashed material was larger in size than material washed off. The fact that the size of the splashed material was larger than washed‐off material shows that material in the wash suffered more impact by raindrops and thus was more likely to be fragmented.     

The formation and characteristics of splash following raindrop impact on soil

Splash droplet characteristics were studied using cine-photography and a simple droplet collection method. Two sizes of falling drop, two heights of fall and a number of target materials including soil, sand, water and rotating sandpaper were used. For a 6 mm drop falling at near terminal velocity about 5000 splash droplets were collected ranging in size from 10 um to more than 3 mm in diameter. The amount of soil material carried by splash droplets was much less in the presence of surface water and increased with the size of water stable aggregates. The energy and momentum balance showed a higher proportion of impact energy and momentum in the resulting splash droplets as the impact energy increased. This suggests that kinetic energy is not a reliable indicator of the erosivity of rain drops.     

利用纳米磁性材料表征地表溅蚀特征的初探

磁性示踪研究坡面土壤侵蚀已取得一定成果,但目前的磁性示踪方法不能满足次降雨后的溅蚀特征研究。因此,在无磁性的石英砂上施用不同浓度(1.5%、2.5%、3.5%)和不同粒径(20 nm、200 nm)的纳米磁性材料,而后进行人工模拟溅蚀试验,利用磁化率仪和3D手持微地形扫描仪研究地表磁性变化与溅蚀后地表特征变化之间的关系,研究利用纳米磁性材料表征溅蚀特征的可行性。结果表明:20 nm磁性材料提高石英砂磁性背景值的幅度远高于200 nm磁性材料且不同浓度的磁性差异极显著,两种纳米磁性材料均呈现出布设浓度越大,示踪时间越长的特点;溅蚀后表层磁化率随溅蚀时间的延长而逐渐衰减,二者呈现出相关性较高的χ_1=aln(t)+b对数函数关系;20 nm磁性材料在3.5%浓度下可有效定量表征出石英砂溅蚀量的变化(p0.01),二者之间的相关关系可用χ_2=a Mb幂函数表示;20 nm磁性材料在溅蚀3 min内的磁化率变化与微地形高差变化呈极显著相关关系(p0.01),说明20 nm磁性材料可以在短时间内有效表征出溅蚀地表的侵蚀程度,可表征出的侵蚀厚度在-5~10 mm内。该研究证明20 nm磁性材料表征溅蚀地表特征的方法在一定程度上是可行的,可为磁性示踪法的深入研究提供新的思路和方法。     

江苏省沿海平原沙土区典型河沟边坡土壤侵蚀试验研究

为探明江苏省沿海平原沙土区河沟边坡土壤侵蚀过程并建立预测模型,在4个坡度和2个雨强条件下,对江苏省沿海平原沙土区典型河沟边坡土壤开展人工模拟溅蚀试验和微区模拟降雨试验,了解河沟边坡土壤溅蚀特征,明确河沟边坡产流产沙过程,并利用传递函数方法分别建立了溅蚀率、产流强度和产沙强度的估算模型.结果表明:(1)河沟边坡土壤溅蚀率...     

土壤溅蚀过程和研究方法综述

土壤溅蚀是土壤侵蚀过程的开始,是指由于降雨雨滴打击土壤表层,引起土壤颗粒分散和迁移的一种侵蚀过程,是导致坡面水蚀的一个重要威胁因子。因此,土壤溅蚀是土壤侵蚀的重要形式和组成部分,具有重要的研究意义。土壤溅蚀过程和研究方法是土壤溅蚀领域研究的核心内容。论文根据有关资料,综述了国内外土壤溅蚀过程和研究方法方面的主要成果,并对将来的研究方向进行了展望,以期推动我国在该领域的研究工作。国内外研究表明,土壤溅蚀是土壤侵蚀的主要过程之一,是各种水文过程、水力过程和生态过程的综合表现,是复杂的降雨因子和土壤因子共同作用的结果,涉及一系列关于降雨雨滴与地表间的能量转换过程。测量土壤溅蚀的方法主要有溅蚀杯、溅蚀板和溅蚀盘。进一步的研究应致力于土壤溅蚀的力学过程和森林土壤溅蚀过程方面的探讨。     

我国水土流失典型区土壤溅蚀特征研究

基于室内模拟降雨试验,分析了我国水土流失典型区代表性土样的溅蚀特征,探讨了溅蚀与土壤理化性质的关系.结果表明,溅蚀量明显受土壤理化性质的影响,黑土土样因团聚体含量及稳定性高,溅蚀量最低;采自内蒙古自治区东胜市的黄土土样因砂粒含量(易被溅蚀的颗粒范围)高,溅蚀量最高;其它黄土土样、红壤土样及紫色土土样或因粉粒含量为主或因团聚体稳定性差而导致溅蚀量居中.模拟降雨条件下,除黑土土样和内蒙古自治区东胜市的黄土土样外,其它土样均发育表土结皮,导致溅蚀率呈现波动态势.     

Shaker speeds for aerobic soil slurry incubations

Abstract

Rates of soil microbial activity are frequently assayed using shaken slurries of soil. Soil slurries are typically shaken at speeds of 120 to 200 revolutions min^‐1 in an effort to maintain uniform concentrations of oxygen (O₂) and other substrates. Few studies have examined whether or not the shaking speeds were sufficient to achieve adequate aeration and mixing. In this study, concentrations of O₂ and rates of nitrification and denitrification were measured in soil slurries (100 mL solution + 10 g soil) contained in 250‐mL Erlenmeyer flasks. The flasks were shaken at speeds ranging from 112 to 200 rev. min^‐1 (corresponding to relative centrifugal forces of 0.14 to 0.45 x gravity). While concentrations of O₂ in the bulk solution remained high throughout the incubations, significant rates of denitrification occurred at shaking speeds ≤ 155 rev. min^‐1. Nitrification rates generally increased with shaking speeds up to 180 rev. min^‐1. Nitrification rates at 180 and 200 rev. min^‐1 were not significantly different. These results suggest that shaking speeds ≤ 180 rev. min^‐1 are necessary to ensure adequate aeration in soil slurries.