塔克拉玛干西南缘风沙前沿防护林对条田的防护作用

[目的] 研究不同疏透度防护林对塔克拉玛干沙漠绿洲边缘条田的防风效能,为当地网格条田可持续发展提供理论指导。[方法] 选取塔克拉玛干南缘县城——新疆叶城县恰其库木管理区城郊防护林为研究对象,通过野外实地观测,对比研究不同疏透度防护林对塔克拉玛干沙漠绿洲边缘条田的防风效能。[结果] ①叶城县恰其库区防护林内条田里离防护林10—15 m范围是防风效果最佳区域,可种植防风能力较差农作物。②3种结构防护林总体而言,防护林1.5 m高处防风效能最佳,2 m处防风效能最低。本研究区条田内,种植生长期总株高小于1.5 m以下的农作物,可有效避免风害导致的损失。③疏透结构林带固沙效率最佳,通风结构次之,紧密结构林带固沙效率最差,其固沙效率排列顺序为：58.39%＞57.99%＞36.29%。[结论] 要发挥防护林的固沙作用,林带疏透度应控制在疏透结构为宜,可以使其达到较好的防风效果。疏透结构防护林周围的条田内可种植抗沙能力较弱农作物。     

宁夏地区农田防护林结构与小气候效应

 为研究宁夏地区农田防护林体系的生态效益,于2002年和2003年8月,对宁夏地区农田防护林体系的疏透度、林网内风速、温度、湿度、农作物增产量等多项生态因子,进行了全面调查。采用综合疏透度和农作物增产量的综合权重指标分析表明:大林网、多林带、多树种混交,利于防护林体系综合效益的提高,应是今后防护林建设的重点。对该地区农田防护林体系的生态效益研究表明:农田防护林的防风效能在35%～45%时较高,偏高或偏低时,防护效能都将下降,农田防护林体系特征,决定了林网内风速变化规律;农田防护林体系通过对太阳辐射的再分配,在地面、树体、树叶及作物表面使温度下降40%～60%,这种温度效益在宁夏地区具有防止作物被灼伤的作用;农田防护林网具有增加空气相对湿度和土壤含水量的生态效益,其作用机制与林带的防风功能密切相关。     

基于防护保证率的农田防护林林带间距调控

农田防护林林带间距的设置关系到防护林防护效益和农田单位经济效益的权衡。该文以新疆南疆枣树防护林为例,引用水文学中防护保证率的概念和方法,以枣树受风害危害的概率特征为基础,兼顾防护林防风生态效益和经济效益最大为目标,建模分析和野外试验相结合,研究了农田防护林林带间距调控方法。结果表明:1)运用防护保证率的方法能够实现对农田防护林防风生态效益与经济效益权衡的优化;2)枣树防护林的防护保证率在95%,林带间距为132.1 m左右时,单位经济价值达到最优,高出常规防护林间距经济产量6.2%;3)林带疏透度为0.34大于疏透度为0.49的防护效益。该研究可为农田防护林林带间距定量调控提供参考。     

干旱半干旱区落叶期农田防护林防风效果的风洞试验研究

探究落叶期不同结构乔灌木农田防护林带的空气动力学特征,合理配置林带结构对于减轻风季(10月-翌年5月)干旱、半干旱区农田土壤风蚀灾害具有重要意义。该研究利用风洞模拟技术,以"2行1带"式乔灌木林带为研究对象,按照1:100的缩尺比例,设计了不同疏透度、不同行距的林带模型,分析不同结构林带的风速廓线、防风效能和有效防护比,揭示落叶期不同结构林带空气流场特征和防风效果。结果表明:乔、灌木林带对空气流场垂直结构产生了不同影响,乔木林带对气流具有分层作用,风影区位于林带后5倍树高处(5H),灌木林带对气流具有抬升作用,风影区紧邻林带;疏透度较低的林带风速削弱作用更明显,疏透度45%、58%的乔木林带主要防风效能区间分别为20%～25%和15%～20%,疏透度36%、54%的灌木林带主要防风效能区间分别为10%～20%和5%～15%;在疏透度相近的条件下,行距对乔木林带防护效果的影响较小,在相同防风效能下不同行距乔木林带的累积有效防护比相差不到5个百分点,行距对灌木林带防护效果能产生较明显的影响,4cm行距灌木林带相比2.5cm行距林带在相同防风效能下的累积有效防护比高18～25个百分点;本研究中,乔木林带和灌木林带最优配置均为低疏透度(乔木45%、灌木35%)宽行距(乔木6 cm、灌木4 cm)模式。因此,在干旱、半干旱地区构建农田防护林带时,应当充分考虑林木落叶期的结构特征,针对乔木、灌木各自的特点有针对性地进行搭配,在合理的林带疏透度范围内,适当增大林带行距,以提高林带的防风能力,保障林木的健康生长。     

行带式配置柠条林防风效益风洞试验研究

柠条(Caragana korshinskii)是我国重要的固沙灌木造林种,在沙区植被重建中被广泛使用.为了使柠条防护林更加稳定高效的发挥防护效应,需要对其空间配置结构进行研究.针对柠条防护林空间配置的问题,该研究设计了风洞模拟试验.试验结果表明:柠条林的空间结构分布对其防护效益具有重要影响.疏透度是影响防护林的防风效果的重要参数,低矮灌木防护林疏透度以0.5左右为优.盖度对防护林的防风效果具有更重要的意义,盖度在20%左右就能有效的降低风速,且连续的行带式配置中林带对气流具有逐级削弱的能力.     

植株高大的目标作物对防护林防风效应影响的风洞模拟试验

防护林对降低风害,促进农作物稳产高产具有重要作用,但目前防护林配置研究仅注意到防护林本身,忽视了果树等植株高大作物对风速的影响。该文选取1种果树（枣树）,3种疏透度林带（30.12%、25.01%和20.92%）,在3种风速下（8、10、和14 m/s）进行风洞模拟,研究种植枣树等植株高大目标作物时,防护林风场特征及防风效应。结果表明：不同风速和林带疏透度下,枣树对林带前后流场均具有显著影响,特别是林带后近地面风速削减程度较大。1）随风速增大,无枣树林带防风效应减小,有枣树林带变化较小,但增量增大,在8、10、和14m/s风速下分别增大16.40%、23.65%和29.05%;2）疏透度为30.12%时,有枣树林带综合防风效应最佳。随疏透度减小,无枣树林带防风效应增大,有枣树林带变化较小,但增量减小,在3种疏透度下分别增加22.72%、15.22%和1.28%。因此总结认为在集约化和精准农业要求下,进行枣树等植株高大作物防护林带配置时,应考虑目标作物的防风效应,如此可减少防护林面积,显著提高目标作物的经济效益。     

农田防护林防风效能的遥感评价

防护林是农田生态系统的重要组成部分,在农田生态系统中扮演着重要的角色。疏透度是一个重要的森林结构参数,被广泛应用于农田防护林防风效能的评价研究。遥感技术具有高空间分辨率和重复对地连续观测的特点,可以弥补野外调查工作的不足。该研究以疏透度为研究对象,利用高空间分辨率遥感数据实现农田防护林疏透度的定量估算,得到研究区防护林网疏透度的空间分布。然后根据估算的疏透度,将研究区防护林网分成紧密型,疏适型和稀疏型3类,以此对其防风效能进行评价。研究结果表明,林带结构参数中平均冠高、叶面积指数和林带宽度的变量组合与防护林疏透度相关性最好,相关系数达到-0.941。利用此变量建立的估算防护林疏透度的统计模型平均精度达到85.413%。疏透度分类统计结果表明,研究区内防护林网多以疏适型防护林为主,占研究区防护林网面积的60.733%,疏适型防护林具有最优的防风效能。相关研究可以为利用遥感手段进行农田防护林的防风效能评价提供参考依据。     

不同疏透度的柠条带防风效果研究

中国干旱、半干旱地区受到风蚀荒漠化的威胁，土壤风蚀现象严重，对国民经济和社会发展造成了危害。植被的落叶期是土壤风蚀严重的季节，为探究落叶期不同疏透度下灌木林带的空气动力学特征，合理配置林带结构，修复荒漠草原土壤风蚀灾害，利用风蚀风洞开展模拟试验，以“一行一带”的柠条带为研究对象，设计不同疏透度的林带模型，分析不同疏透度的林带在6、9、12 m/s三种不同中心风速下带后的风速廓线、防风效能，揭示落叶期不同结构林带空气流场特征和防风效果。结果表明，不同疏透度的灌木林带对空气流场垂直结构产生了不同影响：同种中心风速下，植被疏透度数值越小，风速廓线发生变异的带后距离越近，且变异程度越大；同种疏透度下，中心风速越大，风速廓线发生变异的程度越大。柠条带后的防风效果为：疏透度35%林带>疏透度45%林带>疏透度60%林带。     

乌兰布和沙漠东北缘近地层风速和降尘量特征

选择乌兰布和沙漠东北缘荒漠-绿洲过渡带和绿洲为定位监测点,基于磴口生态站近地层(0~50 m)风沙监测塔2013年全年的风速和降尘数据,分析了沙漠东北缘近地层风沙时空变化规律。研究结果如下:1)过渡带和绿洲内近地层的风速均随着高度增加而增大,风速廓线特征可用幂函数表示;过渡带风速显著高于绿洲内风速。2)过渡带和绿洲内近地层沙尘水平通量和降尘量均随着高度增加而减少,其分布特征遵循幂函数关系;过渡带沙尘水平通量显著高于绿洲内,说明绿洲防护体系对沙尘具有明显的削弱作用;过渡带沙尘水平通量与降尘量之间为线性关系,而绿洲内二者之间为指数函数关系。3)在春、夏、秋、冬季,过渡带和绿洲内近地层沙尘水平通量和降尘量均随着高度增加而减小;春季是沙尘水平通量和降尘量集中的季节,其次为夏季,秋季和冬季相对较低;一年四季中,过渡带沙尘水平通量和降尘量均高于绿洲内。     

风沙区不同配置农田防护林防护效应及其对农田土壤水分的影响

[目的] 明确风沙区不同配置农田防护林产生的防护效果差异以及影响田间土壤含水率的作用因子,为该地区水分管理和土地利用提供理论依据。 [方法] 选择南疆阿拉尔市十团3种典型配置的农田防护林,研究不同配置防护林内土壤含水率、风速、光照强度、空气温湿度等因素,综合分析土壤含水率变异性决定因子。 [结果] 疏透度为41%的5行新疆杨对田间小气候改善作用在0～1 H范围最显著,疏透度为47%的1行胡杨+2行新疆杨的林内有效防护距离最长,且田间土壤含水率显著大于5行新疆杨且大于4行新疆杨。5行新疆杨林内土壤含水率主要受空气温度、湿度、光照强度的影响,4行新疆杨和1行胡杨+2行新疆杨土壤含水率与防护林距离和土层深度有关。总体来看,林带疏透度对土壤含水率有直接负向作用,同时土壤容重随土层深度变化间接对含水率产生负向影响。 [结论] 合理调整农田防护林配置结构,能够提高防护林防护效益,为风沙区作物生长提供有利条件,同时促进当地水资源合理利用和可持续发展。     

低氮和干旱胁迫对富士和秦冠生长及氮素利用的影响

【目的】以富士（Fuji）、 秦冠（Qinguan）嫁接在平邑甜茶（Malus hupehensis Rehd.）上的当年生盆栽苗为试验材料,采用砂培方法,研究了缺氮胁迫和干旱对富士和秦冠生长情况、 光合参数、 植株各部位氮磷钾含量及氮素利用效率的影响,分析比较了低氮干旱条件下富士和秦冠生长及氮素利用的差异,以期为果树生产高效肥水利用提供理论指导。【方法】试验共设四个处理: 正常氮正常水（ZZ）、 低氮正常水（DZ）、 正常氮干旱（ZG）、 低氮干旱（DG）。氮素和水分均设置两个水平,分别为正常氮（6 mmol/L NO-3-N）、 低氮（0.3 mmol/LNO-3-N）、 正常供水（保持盆中砂子相对含水量为饱和含水量的80%~85%）、 干旱处理（保持盆中砂子相对含水量为饱和含水量的60%~65%）。【结果】富士和秦冠的生物量（茎和叶）、 株高茎粗等生长指标以及光合速率、 气孔导度、 蒸腾速率均为正常氮正常水（ZZ）＞低氮正常水（DZ）＞正常氮干旱（ZG）＞低氮干旱（DG）,并且相对应处理下秦冠的以上指标均高于富士;正常供水下,缺氮处理使富士、 秦冠的根冠比比正常氮处理均有所增加,富士提高了2.05%,秦冠提高了22.40%。富士和秦冠的氮、 磷、 钾含量均表现出正常氮正常水（ZZ）＞低氮正常水（DZ）＞正常氮干旱（ZG）＞低氮干旱（DG）; 氮、 钾元素含量在植株各部位的分布顺序依次是叶＞根＞茎,磷元素则是根＞叶＞茎;光合氮素利用效率（PNUE）和氮素利用效率表现为秦冠处理之间差异极显著,富士处理之间差异不显著;秦冠的PNUE和NUE明显高于富士,在低氮正常水（DZ）处理下,秦冠氮肥利用率比富士高42.07%,在低氮干旱（DG）处理下高64.14%;低氮胁迫下富士和秦冠的NUE显著提高,并且秦冠提高的幅度高于富士。【结论】施用氮肥能够显著提高富士与秦冠的干物质量,同等水肥条件下,秦冠生长优于富士;水分亏缺会减少叶片对氮的吸收,干旱条件下适度增施氮肥,可提高果树的抗旱能力;低氮干旱胁迫下秦冠的生长指标、 光合指标及氮素利用效率指标均优于富士,表现出较强的抗低氮干旱胁迫的能力。     

Pasture Vegetation Elemental Analysis by Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy

Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) is a new technique for the analysis of plant material. This study investigates the application of LIBS to pasture-based plant samples. The LIBS measurements were obtained from pelletized pasture samples (100 samples) that had been also analyzed by inductively coupled plasma–optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES) following microwave digestion for calibration and comparison purposes. Comparisons for elements sodium (Na), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), boron (B), phosphorus (P), and sulfur (S) showed that LIBS could be used for almost all the standard profile total elements with concentrations down to low mg/kg levels (observed error of Na: 0.024 percent, K: 0.18 percent, Mg: 0.016 percent, Ca: 0.073 percent, P: 0.017 percent, Mn: 31 mg/kg, Fe: 150 mg/kg, Zn: 6.6 mg/kg, and B: 1.1 mg/kg). Elemental analysis at less than mg/kg levels was not possible using LIBS. The elements S and Cu were particularly difficult to analyze with reliability using LIBS at the concentration levels found in the plant samples. Replacing microwave digestion and subsequent ICP analysis with a direct analysis of dried plant samples using LIBS has the potential to improve the productivity and reduce the cost of testing.     

Faculty positions:Center for Agricultural Resources Research,Chinese Academy of Sciences

正The Center for Agricultural Resources Research(CARR),the Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology(IGDB),Chinese Academy of Sciences,invites applicants for several research group leader positions.CARR is one of the research organizations in Chinese Academy of Sciences(CAS).We seek nominations and applications from individuals who have expertise and a record of accomplishment in research areas related to ecology,agro-hydrology,     

Macroinvertebrates in North American tallgrass prairie soils: effects of fire, mowing, and fertilization on density and biomass

The responses of tallgrass prairie plant communities and ecosystem processes to fire and grazing are well characterized. However, responses of invertebrate consumer groups, and particularly soil-dwelling organisms, to these disturbances are not well known. At Konza Prairie Biological Station, we sampled soil macroinvertebrates in 1994 and 1999 as part of a long-term experiment designed to examine the effects and interactions of annual fire, mowing, and fertilization (N and P) on prairie soil communities and processes. For nearly all taxa, in both years, responses were characterized by significant treatment interactions, but some general patterns were evident. Introduced European earthworms (Aporrectodea spp. and Octolasion spp.) were most abundant in plots where fire was excluded, and the proportion of the total earthworm community consisting of introduced earthworms was greater in unburned, unmowed, and fertilized plots. Nymphs of two Cicada genera were collected (Cicadetta spp. and Tibicen spp.). Cicadetta nymphs were more abundant in burned plots, but mowing reduced their abundance. Tibicen nymphs were collected almost exclusively from unburned plots. Treatment effects on herbivorous beetle larvae (Scarabaeidae, Elateridae, and Curculionidae) were variable, but nutrient additions (N or P) usually resulted in greater densities, whereas mowing usually resulted in lower densities. Our results suggest that departures from historical disturbance regimes (i.e. frequent fire and grazing) may render soils more susceptible to increased numbers of European earthworms, and that interactions between fire, aboveground biomass removal, and vegetation responses affect the structure and composition of invertebrate communities in tallgrass prairie soils.     

Variation in quality parameters between and within 14 Nordic tree fruit and berry species

Abstract

A 3-year study was carried out to investigate quality parameters in 14 tree fruit and berry species grown in southern Norway. The species were blueberry, apple, aronia, sour cherry, sweet cherry, red raspberry, strawberry, blackcurrant, gooseberry, red currant and elderberry, harvested along with wild bilberry, cloudberry and lingonberry. Significant differences between species were identified for all quality parameters. The coefficient of variation between species was lowest for pH (12.5%), dry matter (18.9%) and soluble solids (25.3%), followed by titratable acids (59.3%), total phenolics (83.8%), antioxidant capacity FRAP (85.7%) and antiradical power by the DPPH-assay (97.8%), total monomeric anthocyanins (132%) and ascorbic acid (137%). Average coefficient of variation within species were lower and ranged from 4 (pH) to 62% (ascorbic acid). Only the FRAP values were significantly affected by harvesting year with lower levels in 2004 than in 2005 and 2006. There were significant interactions between species and harvesting year for dry matter, soluble solids, pH, ascorbic acid and FRAP. The results indicate generic ranges in composition within species independent upon growing location and climate, and the composition of the tree fruits and berries is not likely to deviate from these ranges. It is concluded that desirable composition of tree fruits and berries and their products should primarily be achieved by selection among species rather than searching fors broadened variation within individual species.     

Potassium Fixation and Release Characteristics in Rhizosphere and Nonrhizosphere Soils for a Rapeseed–Rice Cropping Sequence

Potassium (K) fixation and release in soil are important factors in the long-term sustainability of a cropping system. Changes in K concentration and characteristics of K fixation and release in rhizosphere and nonrhizosphere soils in the rapeseed (Brassica napus L.)–rice (Oryza sativa L.) rotation were investigated using a rhizobox system. The concentrations of different forms of K in both rhizosphere and nonrhizosphere soils decreased with plants compared to without plants, regardless of K fertilizer application. Potassium uptake by crops mainly came from the rhizosphere soil. In the treatment without K fertilizer (–K), the main form of K supplied by the soil to the crops was 1.0 mol L^?1 nitric acid (HNO₃) nonextractable K, followed by nonexchangeable K, and then exchangeable K. In the treatment with K fertilizer (+K), the main K forms supplied by the soil to the crops were exchangeable K and nonexchangeable K. The amount and rate of K fixation after one cycle of the rapeseed–rice rotation was greater in rhizosphere soil than in nonrhizosphere soil. The amount and rate of K fixation of soil in the +K treatment were significantly less than in the –K treatment. The cumulative amounts of K released with 1.0 mol L^?1 ammonium acetate (NH₄OAc) and 1.0 mol L^?1 HNO₃ extraction increased with the increasing numbers of extractions, but the K-releasing power of soil by successive extraction decreased gradually and finally became almost constant. The release of K was less in rhizosphere soil than in nonrhizosphere soil. The release of K in the +K treatment was similar to that in the –K treatment in rhizosphere soil, but the K release in nonrhizosphere soil was greater with the +K than the –K treatment. Overall, the information obtained in this study will be helpful in formulating more precise K fertilizer recommendations for certain soils.     

Increase in auxiliary photoprotective photosynthetic pigments in wheat seedlings induced by Azospirillum brasilense

Inoculation of wheat seedlings with the plant growth-promoting bacterium Azospirillum brasilense Cd was immobilized in alginate microbeads and, without applying any stress, significantly increased the quantity of several photosynthetic pigments, such as chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and the auxiliary photoprotective pigments violaxanthin, zeaxanthin, antheroxanthin, lutein, neoxanthin, and β-carotene. This resulted in greener plants with no apparent visible stress. After monitoring the quantity of photosynthetic pigments for 4 weeks, we observed that inoculated plants had higher quantities of pigments in shoot and stem. The greatest difference in the quantity of all pigments between inoculated and noninoculated plants occurred in the first week of growth. Regardless of treatment, the quantity of pigments in stems was three to four times less than the quantity of these pigments in shoots. Application of Azospirillum, either as liquid inoculant or as alginate microbeads, did not alter the positive effect of the bacteria on pigment production or the positive response of the plants towards A. brasilense Cd inoculation.     

In-situ enrichment and analysis of atrazine-degrading microbial communities using atrazine-containing porous beads

We examined the community composition of microbes that colonized atrazine-containing beads buried in agricultural soils that differed in atrazine treatment history. Bacterial abundance was 5-40-fold greater in atrazine-fortified beads. In beads containing 20 mg atrazine kg⁻¹ buried in soil with a history of atrazine application (conditioned soil), the abundance of Actinobacteria increased approximately 80-fold whereas in control soil, Actinobacteria were enriched only 10-fold and the gamma-Proteobacteria and Planctomycetes increased by 60- and 25-fold, respectively. The gamma-Proteobacteria were enriched by 120- and 230-fold in beads containing 200 mg atrazine kg⁻¹ in conditioned and control soil, respectively. The results demonstrate that BioSep^® beads are a suitable matrix for recruiting a diverse subset of the bacterial community involved in atrazine degradation.     

Genetic similarities among Spanisch populations of Agropyron, Elymus and Thinopyrum, using PCR-based markers

Arbitrary oligonucleotides were used as primers to amplifygenomic DNA of 48 wild Spanish populations of Agropyroncristatum, Elymus hispanicus,E. caninus,E. repens,Thinopyrum curvifolium, Th.junceum and Th.intermedium. Genetic diversity was analysedusing nineteen primers. The number of amplified products ranged from8 to 18 per primer and a total of 240 markers were scored. Differentlevels of intraspecific genetic diversity were found, the allogamousspecies E. repens andTh. intermedium being themost variable. Jaccard's similarity coefficients for internalmeasure within and between populations were used to produce a clusterdiagram. The results demonstrate differences in the degree ofsimilarity between taxonomic units. Interpopulational variability andinterspecific genomic relationships of these species arediscussed.     

Mycorrhizae,biocides, and biocontrol. 4. Response of a mixed culture of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and host plant to three fungicides

The effects of three commonly used fungicides on the colonization and sporulation by a mixture of three arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi consisting of Glomus etunicatum (Becker & Gerd.), Glomus mosseae (Nicol. & Gerd.) Gerd. & Trappe, and Gigaspora rosea (Nicol. & Schenck) in symbiosis with pea plants and the resulting response of the host-plant were examined. Benomyl, PCNB, and captan were applied as soil drenches at a rate of 20 mg active ingredient kg^-1 soil 2 weeks after transplanting pea seedlings in a silty clay-loam soil containing the mixed inocula of AM fungi (AM plants). Effects of fungicides were compared to untreated plants that were inoculated with fungi (AM control). The effect of mycorrhizal inoculation on plant growth was also examined by including nonmycorrhizal, non-fungicide-treated plants (non-AM control). Fungicides or inoculation with AM fungi had only a small effect on the final shoot weights of pea plants, but had greater effects on root length and seed yield. AM control plants had higher seed yields and lower root lengths than the corresponding non-AM plants, and the fungicide-treated AM plants had intermediate yields and root lengths. Seed N and P contents were likewise highest in AM control plants, lowest in non-AM plants, and intermediate in fungicide-treated AM plants. All three fungicides depressed the proportion (%) of root length colonized by AM fungi, but these differences did not translate to reductions in the total root length that was colonized, since roots were longer in the fungicide-treated AM plants. Pea plants apparently compensated for the reduction in AM-fungal metabolism due to fungicides by increasing root growth. Fungicides affected the population of the three fungi as determined by sporulation at the final harvest. Captan significantly reduced the number, relative abundance, and relative volume of G. rosea spores in the final population relative to the controls. The relative volume of G. etunicatum spores was greater in all the fungicide-treated soils, while G. mosseae relative volumes were only greater in the captan-treated soil. These findings show that fungicides can alter the species composition of an AM-fungal community. The results also show that AM fungi can increase seed yield without enhancing the vegetative shoot growth of host plants.