The economic viability and potential of a novel poultry agroforestry system

Investigating agroforestry systems that incorporate poultry is warranted in Northern Europe as they may offer benefits including: improved welfare and use of range; reduced feed costs; price premia on products; reduced payback periods for forests; and, greater returns on investment. Free-range egg production accounts for 27% of the United Kingdom egg market and demand for outdoor broilers is increasing. No research has been conducted recently on the economic viability of agroforestry systems with poultry. An economic model was constructed to: assess economic viability of a broiler agroforestry system; and, investigate the sensitivity of economic performance to key factors and interactions, and identify those which warrant attention in research and management. The system modelled is a commercial trial established in Southern England in 2002 where deciduous trees were planted and broilers reared in six- or nine-week periods. The model uses Monte Carlo simulation and financial performance analyses run for a 120-year period. An Internal Rate of Return (IRR) of 15.5% is predicted for the six-week system which remains viable under a ‘worst case’ scenario (IRR of 12.6%). Factors which affect financial performance most (decreasing in magnitude) are prices achieved for broilers, costs of brooding houses, chicks, arks, feed and timber prices. The main anticipated effects of biological interactions on financial performance (increased ranging on feed conversion and excess nutrient supply on tree health) were not supported by analysis. Further research is particularly warranted on the welfare benefits offered by the tree component and its relation to price premia.     

Financial analysis of diameter-limit cut stands in northern hardwoods

Diameter-limit cutting of stands in the US northeast is a common practice often thought to give the landowner the highest financial returns. A landowner’s decision to diameter-limit cut or use some other harvesting option on a given stand involves examining mutually exclusive investments. Previous research that compared diameter-limit cutting to other harvesting options implicitly assumed these were independent investments. This paper develops analytical models to examine a variety of harvesting options for a single stand, including diameter-limit cutting, as mutually exclusive investments, and with stand and financial parameters defined by the landowner. These models are used to examine implications of changes in the financial parameters for harvesting options. It is found that no simple guidelines can be laid down for choice of harvesting options to maximise the net present value of stands with respect to diameter-limit cutting compared to other harvesting options. The empirical examples reveal that which harvesting option has the largest net present value depends on the parameters of the landowner’s stand and the financial parameters chosen by the landowner. The analysis illustrates the importance of understanding the interrelationships between the financial and stand parameters in determining whether a diameter-limit cut is in fact the best financial option for a landowner.     

Towards a Framework of Understanding for the Integration of Forestry with Domestic Pig (Sus scrofa domestica) and European Wild Boar (Sus scrofa scrofa) Husbandry in the United Kingdom

Examples of land use systems integrating domestic pigs or wildboar with trees can be observed throughout the world, whereunderlying motivations include opportunistic resource use, tradition,product orientation and service functions. Although there isconsiderable interest in such agroforestry systems in the UK,this is yet to be reflected in widespread practical application,and there is little research available on their biology andperformance. Potential interactions between the two componentsinclude microclimatic implications for pig health and productivity;changes to animal behaviour and welfare; tree damage; provisionof natural fodder; changes to soil and surface vegetation communities;changes to scavenger, predator and disease vector populations;changes in soil structure and quality, and technical consequencesfor forest and pig management. These interactions have implicationsfor the design and performance of enterprises. Promising systemsinclude extensive wild boar husbandry in natural broadleavedwoodland, the use of forest margins or glades to give partialcover of pig pasture, and the use of small pig herds as supplementarysilvicultural tools for ground preparation, weeding, cleaningand pest control.     

Adaptation to Change and Re-designing of Governance Systems: Cases from Small-Scale Rural Forestry

Changes in small-scale forest governance as a reaction to global changes are viewed from the system dynamics perspective, focused on two levels of dynamic systems: the policy system with sets of interactions at the national level and the management system at the local level. These interactions are considered through permanent adaptation and re-shaping of stakeholders’ networks and positions provoking further changes in the systems. Empirical evidence has been obtained from two case studies related to small-scale rural forestry in distinct contexts—France (the Territorial Forestry Charters) and Kyrgyzstan (collaborative forest management and leasing of forest plots)—and viewed through a theoretical framework of social-political systems dynamics. The changes caused by the systems’ capacity for adaptability and resilience are expressed through a double spiral of decision-making, characterising the interactions between national policies and local management practices. The analysis leads to a conclusion that changes are basically determined by the formal and informal stakeholders’ strategies developed in a specific context and their mutual adaptation aimed at system resilience.

Benefit-cost analysis of selected agroforestry systems in Northeastern Thailand

Potential productivity and financial returns from selected agroforestry systems and traditional monocrops located in the Phu Wiang watershed were estimated from limited trials of cropping alternatives using cost-benefit analysis. The agroforestry systems studied consisted of combinations of Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus camaldulensis), Leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala), or Acacia (Acacia auriculiformis) inter-cropped with cassava (Manihot esculenta) or mungbean (Vigna radiata). Evidence from trials at short, 3-year rotations, demonstrate that early supplementary and complementary relationships between some system components can imply synergistic financial gains. Although these biological interactions turn competitive over time, in this case, the gains should be sufficient to make early adopters consider the agroforestry systems financially preferable to traditional monocrops.     

Commercial viability of conservation and social forestry outreach nurseries in South Africa

Nurseries are risky ventures, even in conducive operating environments. Unlike many of their international counterparts, financial objectives are usually important to South African outreach nurseries, to generate funds for projects and/or to enhance local livelihoods. However, most are situated in low-income areas where residents have limited spending power. This paper examines the commercial viability of ten outreach nurseries from six provinces, with a range of conservation objectives. Management performance was assessed through correspondence and financial ratio analyses. Although seven projects had built up steady markets, this took 5–8 years to achieve, even in intensively funded projects. Only one nursery had achieved a steady annual net profit. The prolonged establishment phases impacted negatively on participants’ livelihoods and project processes. Marketing difficulties included a lack of markets, nurseries being located far from markets, pricing difficulties, inadequate transport and limited marketing communications. Seasonal factors exacerbated liquidity shortfalls. Conservation activities such as greening and rehabilitation programmes provided markets, but medicinal plant nurseries struggled to achieve both conservation and socio-economic objectives, largely through difficulties experienced in providing seedlings at prices that subsistence sector resource users could afford. To achieve commercial viability, outreach enterprises need to adhere to business fundamentals viz. effective planning, management and coordination of resources, monitoring and control. Thorough viability studies are crucial. Alternate natural resource management and income generating strategies need to be evaluated, as a nursery may not be the best means of achieving these. The current Build–Operate–Transfer approach to projects by many supporting organisations is cause for concern as even small-scale projects usually require intensive support.     

Lack of natural control mechanisms increases wildlife–forestry conflict in managed temperate European forest systems

Across Europe, ungulate numbers have greatly increased over the past decades, leading to increasing concerns about the ecological and economical impacts and pleas for stronger population control. However, focussing on population control only ignores other underlying factors which may enhance the wildlife–forestry conflict. I reviewed factors which shape herbivore top-down effects in natural temperate forest systems aiming at understanding how these interactions are altered in managed forests. Carnivores are important in modifying ungulate–plant interactions. They can directly influence the numbers of ungulates, but this effect is dependent on productivity and predicted to be smallest in highly productive temperate forest. Indirectly, they modify herbivore top-down effects by creating a landscape of fear. Despite the abundance of knowledge from American systems, there is a lack of knowledge on how this process might work in European systems. Next to carnivores, abiotic conditions interact with herbivory by influencing forage quality and availability. Forest gaps lead to concentration of ungulates and their effects, due to increased forage supply. Abiotic conditions also influence the response of plants following herbivory, which can be tolerated by showing increased regrowth or resistance due to chemical or physical defence. In typical managed forest systems, carnivores and abiotic conditions which shape ungulate top-down effects in natural forests are altered or absent. Human hunting might replace the direct effects of carnivores, but does not replace their indirect effects. Forestry practices also have modified herbivore–plant interactions in several ways, creating a forest with lower ungulate carrying capacity and higher sensitivity for ungulate browsing. These changes logically increase the strength of herbivore top-down effects in managed forests and increase the wildlife–forestry conflict. To reduce this conflict, aiming only at reducing wildlife numbers is predicted to have little effects when they do not coincide with habitat ameliorations. Forestry practices may therefore greatly enhance the conflict that exists between wildlife and forestry but can also be an important tool to reduce this conflict by adapting management practices that allow more natural functioning of forests systems.     

Socio-economic factors affecting the income of small-scale agroforestry farms in hill country areas in Yemen: A comparison of OLS and WLS determinants

Yemen is a less-developed country in the Arabian Peninsula, with only 3% arable land. An agroforestry land-use system has been practiced traditionally by small-scale farmers, but is associated with low productivity and income. A study has been undertaken to determine the socio-economic attributes of farmers that influence the financial performance of agroforestry and non-agroforestry farms in the Bura’a Mountain region. A survey was conducted of 150 farmers involved in both agroforestry and non-agroforestry. Both OLS and WLS regression were applied, and coefficients compared in terms of consistency and goodness of fit. Incomes of farmers were found to be influenced by education, area of land, livestock holding, family size, and whether coffee is grown, but not farmer’s age. The WLS method produced efficient and consistent results, whereas OLS regression was affected by the heteroscedasticity. The findings of the study indicate that the farmers of the study area are in need of financial and technical support from government to increase their income. Infrastructural development and public intervention in developing farmers’ technical know-how could enhance production and ensure the optimum use of land as well as soil and water conservation.     

A South African softwood sawtimber supply chain case study

Supply chain management principles were analysed by investigating the effects of smaller-scale and incremental interventions in a forest-to-mill value chain on financial returns and forest resource use in an Eastern Cape case study area. Three previous studies provided input by determining fibre balances, a terrain factor, and primary and secondary transport travel speeds and efficiencies. Network analysis, combined with raster-based GIS, analysed different primary and secondary transport scenarios. The forest road network was repeatedly refined through theoretical removal of lower-class roads and subsequent upgrades of remaining roads, and the timber resource flowed over the remaining road network to the mill. Four road networks, including the existing and unrefined network, were studied. With sequentially improved secondary transport travel speeds, primary transport efficiency and fibre use, the net financial returns of the various scenarios were determined by applying discounted cash flow analysis (NPV). To address all possible combinations, 144 unique scenarios were created. The highest NPV achieved was R300.8 million associated with a highly upgraded road network and associated fast secondary transport speeds, cable skidder extraction, motor-manual felling and cross-cutting at the merchandising yard, all factors at optimal performance. The lowest NPV was R40.4 million associated with a simplified road network, low secondary transport speeds, cable skidder extraction, mechanised felling, and roadside merchandising and at status quo systems performance. Examination of individual factors found systems performance, secondary transport speeds and road network had the greatest influence, with systems performance and fibre losses providing the largest impact. Secondary transport speed followed as nine of the top 10 NPV scenarios were achieved with the highest possible road design speeds. Higher-class networks consistently outperformed the baseline and simplified scenarios. Harvesting system had limited effect. When operating at peak performance, using a merchandising yard becomes a better choice. There was no clear difference in terms of felling method or skidder type. It is clear that the optimised use of potentially the most productive machine, for example in one system, does not provide the best final results and that it is the basic harmonisation of all factors that must be taken into account. As in all three previous and related studies, the human element played a role.     

An approach to developing methodologies for evaluating agroforestry systems in India

India has a long tradition of agroforestry and many different types of indigenous agroforestry systems can be found in different parts of the country. Most of these systems are, however, very location-specific, and information on them is mostly anecdotal. Therefore, their benefits have remained vastly underexploited. The situation is now slowly but steadily changing. It has now been well recognized that agroforestry can address some of the major land-use problems of rainfed farming systems, and that a great deal can be accomplished by improving the indigenous systems. However, agroforestry research is still in its infancy; most of the on-going efforts are of the “WHAT” type dealing with component and system management, with too little attention being paid to the “WHY” (reasons for the observed behavior) and the “HOW” (processes involved) of the results. Therefore, most of the research results obtained from such efforts are also largely location-specific. In order to improve the efficiency of indigenous agroforestry systems, as well as to assess the performance of improved technologies, we need to have a systematic procedure to evaluate such systems. Since productivity, sustainability and social acceptability are the key attributes of all agroforestry systems, evaluation procedures should encompass all these criteria. But the precise criteria for such evaluations have still not been fully developed. A broad evaluation of the indigenous agroforestry systems and current research efforts in India shows that the thrusts of agroforestry efforts are different in different agro-ecological regions depending on the region's characteristic land-use constraints. Therefore it should be possible to develop an evaluation matrix of agro-ecological regions versus agroforestry potentials and attributes. Such a matrix could be a framework for evaluating agroforestry systems, as well as a guide for the type of research and nature of data that will need to be generated from agroforestry projects. The matrix with necessary adjustments can be made use of for agroforestry systems evaluation within relatively smaller areas such as sub-regions to larger areas such as states, or zones consisting of several states. The results of such evaluations can be thses for appropriate extension recommendations for that specific area or region.     

企业财务分析评价的局限性及注意的问题

目前,我国企业的财务分析主要是指以财务报表和其他资料为依据和起点所进行的分析。这种分析虽然数据较易获得和较为规范,也有利于企业财务能力评价的顺利进行,但也存在着一定的局限性及应该注意的问题。     

论企业财务风险管理

财务风险作为一种信号 ,能够全面综合反映企业的经营状况 ,要求企业经营者进行经常性财务分析 ,防范财务危机 ,增强风险承受能力 ;健全市场风险机制 ,建立财务风险评价指标体系 ,为企业进行风险管理创造条件 ,使其能在险中取胜。     

Profitability, Liquidity and Solvency of Wood Harvesting Contractors in Finland

In order to respond to global competition challenges, the wood-processing industry in Finland and elsewhere is outsourcing roundwood harvesting to harvesting contractors. The industry also seeks to negotiate with fewer, larger and more diverse contractor enterprises. The weak profitability, liquidity and solvency of harvesting contractors and the consequent difficulty in hiring qualified machine operators make networking and enterprise growth a complicated process. Financial data of 1,060 Finnish wood harvesting contractors from the period 2001 to 2007 were studied using the ‘closing of the accounts’ data. The material represents most of the full-time contractors. For 2007 net profit was about 6%, credit share of turnover over 50% and median financial reserve €18,000. High machine depreciation and interest expenses together with low solidity make it difficult for small enterprises to absorb seasonal variations and to cope with recessions. Profitability varies considerably amongst smallest enterprises, which most often are sole-operator enterprises. Moreover, even the median profit of the smallest enterprises tends to be negative, which means that enterprise capital will be consumed and many enterprises are at risk of failure. Larger enterprises are more likely to be limited liability companies. Their median profit is clearly positive and the profit varies relative little between enterprises.     

Biophysical interactions in tropical agroforestry systems

The rate and extent to which biophysical resources are captured and utilized by the components of an agroforestry system are determined by the nature and intensity of interactions between the components. The net effect of these interactions is often determined by the influence of the tree component on the other component(s) and/or on the overall system, and is expressed in terms of such quantifiable responses as soil fertility changes, microclimate modification, resource (water, nutrients, and light) availability and utilization, pest and disease incidence, and allelopathy. The paper reviews such manifestations of biophysical interactions in major simultaneous (e.g., hedgerow intercropping and trees on croplands) and sequential (e.g., planted tree fallows) agroforestry systems. In hedgerow intercropping (HI), the hedge/crop interactions are dominated by soil fertility improvement and competition for growth resources. Higher crop yields in HI than in sole cropping are noted mostly in inherently fertile soils in humid and subhumid tropics, and are caused by large fertility improvement relative to the effects of competition. But, yield increases are rare in semiarid tropics and infertile acid soils because fertility improvement does not offset the large competitive effect of hedgerows with crops for water and/or nutrients. Whereas improved soil fertility and microclimate positively influence crop yields underneath the canopies of scattered trees in semiarid climates, intense shading caused by large, evergreen trees negatively affects the yields. Trees in boundary plantings compete with crops for above- and belowground resources, with belowground competition of trees often extending beyond their crown areas. The major biophysical interactions in improved planted fallows are improvement of soil nitrogen status and reduction of weeds in the fallow phase, and increased crop yields in the subsequent cropping phase. In such systems, the negative effects of competition and micro-climate modification are avoided in the absence of direct tree–crop interactions. Future research on biophysical interactions should concentrate on (1) exploiting the diversity that exists within and between species of trees, (2) determining interactions between systems at different spatial (farm and landscape) and temporal scales, (3) improving understanding of belowground interactions, (4) assessing the environmental implications of agroforestry, particularly in the humid tropics, and (5) devising management schedules for agroforestry components in order to maximize benefits. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

A bioeconomic analysis of carbon sequestration in farm forestry: a simulation study of Gliricidia sepium

Trees provide many environmental services including improved soil fertility and soil structure, which often leads to increased productivity and sustainability of the land. Trees also increase the average carbon stocks of land-use systems. Under the Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol, landholders may receive payments for the carbon-sequestration services provided. This study is the first of a series aimed at assessing the appropriateness of tree-based land-use systems as alternatives to continuous cropping and/or Imperata-fallow systems. The performance of a Gliricidia sepium woodlot, grown over 25 years and under various pruning and harvesting regimes, was assessed through modelling. The assessment was based on the system’s ability to sequester and store carbon, maintain land productivity, and be financially profitable for landholders. It was found that the system was profitable under most management regimes tested. Profits were maximised by pruning and harvesting as much biomass as possible when no carbon payments were available, but this strategy decreased system productivity and profitability in the long run. Carbon-sequestration payments encouraged landholders to adopt less intensive practices since net revenues were higher with carbon payments. It was also shown that the carbon pools included in a carbon-trading scheme were sensitive to carbon-measuring costs. For example, if the annual cost of measuring soil carbon was greater than US$1.19 ha⁻¹ it would not be economical to account for this pool in a carbon-sequestration project.     

A general classification of agroforestry practice

Present classification schemes confuse agroforestry practices, where trees are intimately associated with agricultural components at a field scale, with the whole farm and forest systems of which they form a part. In fact, it is common for farming systems to involve the integration of several reasonably discrete agroforestry practices, on different types of land. The purpose of a general classification is to identify different types of agroforestry and to group those that are similar, thereby facilitating communication and the organized storage of information. A new scheme is proposed that uses the ‘practice’ rather than the ‘system’ as the unit of classification. This allows an efficient grouping of practices that have a similar underlying ecology and prospects for management. A two stage definition of agroforestry is proposed that distinguishes an interdisciplinary approach to land use from a set of integrated land use practices. Four levels of organization are recognized through analysis of the role of trees in agricultural landscapes: the land use system, categories of land use within systems, discrete groups of components (trees, crops, animals) managed together, and functionally connected groups of such discrete practices in time and space. Precedents for this form of analysis are found in the literature and it conforms with generally accepted methods of systems analysis. Classification of major types of agroforestry practice proceeds primarily according to the components involved and the predominant usage of land. A secondary scheme further classifies these in terms of the arrangement, density and diversity of the tree components involved. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Small-Scale Mehedi (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Lawsonia inermis</Emphasis> L.) Farming in the Central Bangladesh: A Promising NTFP-Based Rural Livelihood Outside the Forests

Throughout the world ornamentation of body with mehedi (Lawsonia inermis L.) leaf paste, with the trade name ‘henna body art’ is becoming increasingly popular. The worldwide increasing demand of mehedi leaf encourages many countries to adopt commercial farming of the plant. Farmers living in central Bangladesh recently commenced small-scale mehedi farming, primarily with the purpose of meeting national demand. A total of 182 farmers are engaged in mehedi farming and a study was conducted among 36 of them (a 20% random sample) to explore indigenous management techniques, marketing, livelihood potential and constraints of the enterprise. Farming was reported to be the major primary occupation of the study area. An average of 0.05 ha land of the respondents was used for mehedi cultivation, which constituted 16.7% of their average farm land. The farmers applied their own indigenous technology in every aspect of the farming, using branch cuttings as the only propagation material. The financial analysis indicated that mehedi farming is a profitable and attractive option for rural livelihoods [with an estimated net present value of Tk (Bangladeshi currency unit, 1 US $ = 68 Taka (as of May, 2009).) 179,500 for 0.1 ha plantation]. However, the enterprise faces several constraints, including absence of a nursery for supplying planting materials, storage and effective marketing facilities, available capital for investment, improved technology, and above all, government support. If the government extends cooperation by assisting farmers with training, technology, credit and market development, mehedi farming could become an important revenue-earning enterprise in the small-scale cottage sector of Bangladesh.     

Spectral analysis of the successive degradation process of kraft lignin by alkaline oxygen treatment

Softwood kraft lignin was subjected to alkaline oxygen treatment in a fundamental study of lignin degradation. Two different spectral changes were observed in the time course of ultraviolet-visible spectra along with the progress of the treatment. These spectral changes could be recognized as proceeding along certain temporal functions that were based on second-order decays with different halflives. The spectral changes were defined as “fast change” and “slow change.” The fitting studies on the amount of total protons on the unsaturated and aromatic systems, the amount of unconjugated phenolic substructure determined by differential ionization spectra, and the amount of methoxyl group with temporal functions showed that two reaction types (formation of muconate derivatives and ortho-quinone derivatives) can be expected as the major modification types occurring during fast change. The fitting study of the time course of infrared attenuated total reflectance (ATR) spectra gave corresponding infrared ATR spectral features of fast and slow changes. The occurrence of the formation of muconate derivatives by fast change was strongly supported by the spectral feature of fast change. On the other hand, it is suggested that the aromatic structure of lignin was further degraded during slow change. In addition, formation of resistant phenolic substructures is suggested as another possible modification type occurring by fast change. Parts of this article were presented at the 13th International Symposium on Wood, Fiber, and Pulping Chemistry, Auckland, New Zealand, May 2005     

金融危机下中国林业企业的发展战略研究

随着金融危机对世界经济造成巨大冲击,中国林业企业也受到了较大的影响。主要表现为：林业行业产出下降、就业减少、进出口受阻、库存增加以及利润下降。究其原因,主要是由于我国林业企业对外依存度高,产业化程度低,自主创新能力差,缺乏品牌意识。本文基于林业企业受到的影响,分析了中国林业企业受到重创的主要原因,提出企业的应对对策。