Nature of Soil Acidity in Relation to Properties and Lime Requirement of Some Inceptisols

Some Inceptisols representing the Singla catchment area in Karimgaunge district of Assam, India, were studied for lime requirement as influenced by the nature of soil acidity. The electrostatically bonded (EB)-H+ and EB-Al3+ acidities constituted 33 and 67 percent of exchangeable acidity while EB-H+, EB-Al3+,exchangeable and pH-dependent acidities comprised 6, 14, 20 and 80 percent of total potential acidity. The pH-dependent acidity made a major contribution towards the total potential acidity (67%～84%). Grand mean of lime requirement determined by the laboratory incubation method and estimated by the methods of New Woodruff, Woodruff and Peech as expressed in MgCaCO3 ha-1 was in the order: Woodruff (15.6) ＞ New Woodruff (14.9) ＞ Peech (5.1) ＞ incubation (5.0). Correlations analysis among different forms of acidity and lime requirement methods with selected soil properties showed that pH in three media, namely water, 1 mol L-1 KCl and 0.01 mol L-1 CaCl2, had a significant negative correlation with different forms of acidity and lime requirement methods. Exchangeable Fe and Al showed significant positive correlations with EB-Al3+ acidity, exchangeable acidity, pH-dependent acidity and total potential acidity, and also lime requirement methods. Extractable Al showed positive correlations with different forms of acidity except EB-H+ and EB-Al3+ acidities. The lime requirement by different methods depended upon the extractable aluminium.Significant positive correlations existed between lime requirements and different forms of acidity of the soils except EB-H+ acidity and incubation method. The nature of soil acidity was mostly pH-dependent. Statistically, the Woodruff method did slightly better than the New Woodruff, incubation and Peech methods at estimating lime requirement and hence the Woodruff procedure may be recommended for routine soil testing because of its speed and simplicity.     

Influence of Different Forms of Iron and Aluminum on the Nature of Soil Acidity of Some Inceptisols,Alfisols, and Ultisols

Abstract

Fifteen acid soils of Mizoram representing Ultisols and Inceptisols, and Madhya Pradesh, representing Alfisols, were studied to characterize the nature of acidity in relation to different forms of iron (Fe) and aluminum (Al). The mean contents of Fe and Al were extracted by various extracting reagents and were found to be in descending order as followed: dithionite>oxalate>pyrophosphate>ammonium acetate>KCl. The electrostatically bonded EB‐H⁺ and EB‐Al³⁺ acidity comprised 28.3 and 71.7% of exchangeable acidity whereas EB‐H⁺, EB‐Al³⁺, exchangeable, and pH‐dependent acidities comprised 9.8, 30.7, 40.5, and 59.5% of total potential acidity. All forms, of acidity showed significant correlation with pH_k and organic carbon. Among the different forms, Fe and Al caused most of the variations in different forms of soil acidity but the effect of different forms of Al are more active and directly participate in the formation of EB‐H⁺, EB‐Al³⁺, and exchangeable acidity.     

Status and Distribution of Sulfur in Acidic Alfisols of District Kangra,Himachal Pradesh

Different forms of sulphur (S) in both surface and profile soil samples under cereal, vegetable, and oilseed cropping systems were determined to assess their sulfur status. Results emanating from this study revealed that available, water-soluble, heat-soluble, organic, and total sulfur contents were greatest in cereal followed by vegetable- and oilseed-based cropping systems. Sulfur fractions decreased with increasing soil depth. High magnitude of sulfur deficiency observed in oilseed followed by cereal and vegetable cropping systems showed that oilseeds are sulfur-exhaustive crops leading to sulfur mining and there is urgent need to include this element in fertility-management programs. Correlation studies revealed the equilibrium among the fractions in both profile and surface soil samples.     

Soil Acidity and Exchange Properties of Cryogenic Soils in Arctic Alaska

The physical and chemical properties of Arctic tundra soils were studied along a 250-km latitudinal transect in northern Alaska. The transect includes the nonacidic tundra of the Arctic Coastal Plain, the moist nonacidic tundra of the northern Arctic Foothills, and moist acidic tundra of the southern Arctic Foothills. The parent material of the coastal plain consists of carbonate-rich alluvium. The northern foothills have a mantle of calcareous loess. Further south the parent materials are moraines of late Quaternary. Vegetation changes from sedges on the coastal plain, to grasses on the northern foothills, and tussock and shrub tundra in southern foothills. Following the same order, soil pH and base saturation decrease and soil acidity increases. Most of the soil exchangeable acidity and cation exchange capacity are from soil organic matter.     

Characterization of Spatial Variability of Soil Parameters in Apple Orchards of Himalayan Region Using Geostatistical Analysis

ABSTRACT

Knowledge of spatial variability in soil properties is critical for effective nutrient management plan in crop production. Poor productivity of apple orchards in Indian Himalayan Region (IHR) is due to lack of information on the variability of soil properties important for enhancing productivity in the region. The study was conducted in apple orchards with the hypothesis that spatial variability of soil properties is high due to adoption of varied management and passive soil factors. The major objectives of the study were to assess the spatial variability of soil parameters, viz. soil pH, electrical conductivity, soil organic carbon along with plant available soil nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), exchangeable calcium (Ca), and exchangeable magnesium (Mg) at a regional scale through geostatistical methods. Coefficient of variation (CV) indicated that the fertility parameters varied from medium to high in heterogeneity (CV > 20%). Available N was found critical/medium in 69.6% of soil samples and might be one of the limiting nutrients for crop growth, P and K were in high, and OC in very high range. Significant correlation was found between OC with N; pH with K, Ca and Mg and EC with OC, P and K. The semivariogram parameters indicated that the spatial distribution of soil fertility parameters were inconsistent and showed strong to weak degree of spatial dependence for all parameters. The study highlighted the importance of delineation of soil fertility management zones in the apple growing region as a guide for precise and site-specific nutrient.     

Soil Acidity Changes in Bulk Soil and Maize Rhizosphere in Response to Nitrogen Fertilization

The capacity of nitrogen (N) fertilizers to acidify the soil is regulated principally by the rate and N source. Nitrogen fertilizers undergo hydrolysis and nitrification in soil, resulting in the release of free hydrogen (H⁺) ions. Simultaneously, ammonium (NH₄ ⁺) absorption by roots strongly acidifies the rhizosphere, whereas absorption of nitrate (NO₃ ^?) slightly alkalinizes it. The rhizosphere effects on soil acidity and plant growth in conjunction with N rate are not clearly known. To assess the impact of these multiple factors, changes in the acidity of a Typic Argiudol soil, fertilized with two N sources (urea and UAN) at two rates (equivalent to 100 and 200 kg N ha^?1), were studied in a greenhouse experiment using maize as the experimental plant. Soil pH (measured in a soil–water slurry), total acidity, exchangeable acidity, and exchangeable aluminum (Al) were measured in rhizospheric and bulk soil. Plant biomass and foliar area (FA) were also measured at the V₆ stage. Nitrogen fertilization significantly reduce the pH in the bulk soil by 0.3 and 0.5 units for low and high rates respectively. Changes in the rhizosphere (the “rhizospheric effect”) resulted in a significant increase in soil pH, from 5.9 to 6.2. The rhizospheric effect × N source interaction significantly increased exchangeable acidity in the rhizosphere relative to bulk soil, particularly when UAN was added at a low rate. Only total acidity was significantly increased by the fertilizer application rate. In spite of the bulk soil acidification, no significant differences in exchangeable aluminum were detected. Aerial biomass and FA were significantly increased by the higher N rate, but N source had no effect on them. Although changes in acidity were observed, root biomass was not significantly affected.     

Influence of Soil and Fertilizer Nutrients on Sustainability of Rainfed Finger Millet Yield and Soil Fertility in Semi-arid Alfisols

Productivity of rainfed finger millet in semiarid tropical Alfisols is predominantly constrained by erratic rainfall, limited soil moisture, low soil fertility, and less fertilizer use by the poor farmers. In order to identify the efficient nutrient use treatment for ensuring higher yield, higher sustainability, and improved soil fertility, long term field experiments were conducted during 1984 to 2008 in a permanent site under rainfed semi-arid tropical Alfisol at Bangalore in Southern India. The experiment had two blocks—Farm Yard Manure (FYM) and Maize Residue (MR) with 5 fertilizer treatments, namely: control, FYM at 10 t ha^?1, FYM at 10 t ha^?1 + 50% NPK [nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K)], FYM at 10 t ha^?1 + 100% NPK (50 kg N + 50 kg P + 25 kg K ha^?1) and 100% NPK in FYM block; and control, MR at 5 t ha^?1, MR at 5 t ha^?1 + 50% NPK, MR at 5 t ha^?1 + 100% NPK and 100% NPK in MR block. The treatments differed significantly from each other at p < 0.01 level of probability in influencing finger millet grain yield, soil N, P, and K in different years. Application of FYM at 10 t ha^?1 + 100% NPK gave a significantly higher yield ranging from 1821 to 4552 kg ha^?1 with a mean of 3167 kg ha^?1 and variation of 22.7%, while application of maize residue at 5 t ha^?1 + 100% NPK gave a yield of 593 to 4591 kg ha^?1 with a mean of 2518 kg ha^?1 and variation of 39.3% over years. In FYM block, FYM at 10 t ha^?1 + 100% NPK gave a significantly higher organic carbon (0.45%), available N (204 kg ha^?1), available P (68.6 kg ha^?1), and available K (107 kg ha^?1) over years. In maize residue block, application of MR at 5 t ha^?1 + 100% NPK gave a significantly higher organic carbon (0.39%), available soil N (190 kg ha^?1), available soil P (47.5 kg ha^?1), and available soil K (86 kg ha^?1). The regression model (1) of yield as a function of seasonal rainfall, organic carbon, and soil P and K nutrients gave a predictability in the range of 0.19 under FYM at 10 t ha^?1 to 0.51 under 100% NPK in FYM block compared to 0.30 under 100% NPK to 0.67 under MR at 5 t ha^?1 application in MR block. The regression model (2) of yield as a function of seasonal rainfall, soil N, P, and K nutrients gave a predictability in the range of 0.11 under FYM at 10 t ha^?1 to 0.52 under 100% NPK in FYM block compared to 0.18 under MR at 5 t ha^?1 + 50% NPK to 0.60 under MR at 5 t ha^?1 application in MR block. An assessment of yield sustainability under different crop seasonal rainfall situations indicated that FYM at 10 t ha^?1 + 100% NPK was efficient in FYM block with a maximum Sustainability Yield Index (SYI) of 41.4% in <500 mm, 64.7% in 500–750 mm, 60.2% in 750–1000 mm and 60.4% in 1000–1250 mm rainfall, while MR at 5 t ha^?1 + 100% NPK was efficient with SYI of 29.6% in <500 mm, 50.2% in 500–750 mm, 40.6% in 750–1000 mm, and 39.7% in 1000–1250 mm rainfall in semi-arid Alfisols. Thus, the results obtained from these long term studies incurring huge expenditure provide very good conjunctive nutrient use options with good conformity for different rainfall situations of rainfed semiarid tropical Alfisol soils for ensuring higher finger millet yield, maintaining higher SYI, and maintaining improved soil fertility.     

Ameliorating Effects of Fungus Chaff and Its Biochar on Soil Acidity

A biochar was generated from fungus chaff at 300 °C, and the ameliorating effects of fungus chaff and its biochar on an acidic Ultisol were compared using incubation experiments. Incorporation of fungus chaff and its biochar significantly increased soil pH and soil exchangeable base cations but decreased soil exchangeable acidity. The ameliorating effect was greater for the biochar than the fungus chaff, and thus the biochar was a better amendment for acidic soil than its feedstock of fungus chaff. The biochar ameliorated soil acidity mainly through the release of its contained alkaline substances, while fungus chaff increased pH of acidic soils through two mechanisms: release of alkaline substances and inhibition of soil nitrification. The incorporation of fungus chaff increased soil-available organic carbon and thus accelerated the microbial assimilation of inorganic nitrogen, while incorporation of fungus chaff biochar enhanced nitrification due to increased soil pH.     

Analysis of Citrus Orchard Efficiency in Relation to Soil Properties

ABSTRACT

Orchard efficiency (OE) is one of the indices of evaluating the sustainability in production behavior of citrus orchards. A wide range of soil properties broadly categorized into particle size distribution, water soluble and exchangeable cations, and soil available nutrients were investigated in relation to efficiency of Nagpur mandarin (Citrus reticulata Blanco) orchards established on smectite rich three soil orders (Entisols, Inceptisols, and Vertisols) representing 18 locations of central India. The soil properties, viz., free calcium carbonate (CaCO₃), clay content, water soluble- and exchangeable-calcium (Ca^{2 +}), available nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and zinc (Zn) contributed significantly towards variation in OE. The threshold limit of these limiting soil properties was further established using multivariate quadratic regression models as: 132.1 g kg^{? 1} free CaCO₃, 418.1 g kg^{? 1} clay, 149.9 mg L^{? 1} water soluble Ca^{2 +}, 25.9 cmol(p⁺) kg^{? 1} exchangeable Ca^{2 +}, 114.6 mg kg^{? 1} available N, 12.8 mg kg^{? 1} available P, and 0.96 mg kg^{? 1} available Zn in relation to optimum OE of 82.1%. These reference values were very close to those obtained from best fit models, and could be effectively utilized in addressing soil related production constraints for precision-aided citriculture.     

Distribution of Forms of Copper and their Association with Soil Properties and Uptake in Major Soil Orders in Semi-arid Soils of Punjab,India

Profiles of semi-arid-zone soils in Punjab, northwestern India, were investigated for different forms of copper (Cu), including total Cu, diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA)–extractable Cu, soil solution plus exchangeable Cu, Cu adsorbed onto inorganic sites, Cu bound by organic sites, and Cu adsorbed onto oxide surfaces. When all soils were considered, total Cu content ranged from 7 to 37 mg kg^?1, while DTPA-extractable and soil solution plus exchangeable Cu contents ranged from 0.30 to 3.26 mg kg^?1 and from 0.02 to 0.43 mg kg^?1, respectively. Copper adsorbed onto inorganic sites ranged from 0.62 to 2.6 mg kg^?1 and that onto oxide surfaces ranged from 2.0 to 13.2 mg kg^?1. The Cu bound by organic sites ranged from 1.2 to 12.2 mg kg^?1. The magnitudes of different forms of Cu in soils did not exhibit any consistent pattern of distribution. Organic matter and size fractions (clay and silt) had a strong influence on the distribution of different forms of Cu. The content of all forms of Cu was generally greater in the fine-textured Alfisols and Inceptisols than coarse-textured Entisols. Soil solution plus exchangeable Cu, Cu held onto organic sites, and and Cu adsorbed onto inorganic sites (crystalline) had significant positive correlations with organic carbon and silt contents.The DTPA Cu was positively correlated with organic carbon, silt, and clay contents. Total Cu content strongly correlated with silt and clay contents of soils. Among the forms, Cu held on the organic site, water soluble + exchangeable Cu, and Cu adsorbed onto oxide surface were positively correlated with DTPA-extractable Cu. The DTPA-extractable Cu and soil solution plus exchangeable Cu seems to be good indices of Cu availability in soils and can be used for correction of Cu deficiency in the soils of the region. The uptake of Cu was greater in fine-textured Inceptisols and Alfisols than coarse-textured Entisols. Among the different forms only DTPA-extractable Cu was positively correlated with total uptake of Cu.     

Alleviation of Soil Acidity and Aluminium Phytotoxicity in Acid Soils by Using Alkaline-Stabilised Biosolids

A pot experiment was carried out to study alleviation of soil acidity and Al toxicity by applying an alkaline-stabilised sewage sludge product (biosolids) to an acid clay sandy loam (pH 5.7) and a strongly acid sandy loam (pH 4.5). Barley (Hordeum vulgare L. cv. Forrester) was used as a test crop and was grown in the sewage sludge-amended (33.5 t sludge DM ha-1) and unamended soils. The results showed that the alkaline biosloids increased soil pH from 5.7 to 6.9 for the clay sandy loam and from 4.5 to 6.0 for the sandy loam. The sludge product decreased KCl-extractable Al from 0.1 to 0.0 cmol kg-1 for the former soil and from 4.0 to 0.1 cmol kg-1 for the latter soil. As a result, barley plants grew much better and grain yield increased greatly in the amended treatments compared with the unamended controls. These observations indicate that alkaline-stabilised biosolids can be used as a liming material for remedying Al phytotoxicity in strongly acid soils by increasing soil pH and lowering Al bioavailability.     

Case Study of the Effects of Irrigation and Nitrogen Fertilization on Active and Reserve Soil Acidity

Excessive soil acidity and low soil pH may liberate plant toxic levels of manganese and aluminum from soil minerals, and interfere with nitrogen and phosphorus availability. Active soil acidity is measured as soil pH and reacts quickly in the soil-plant system. Potential or reserve acidity is inactive in the soil, and acts as a source of replenishment for active acidity. Studies to determine the effect of ammoniacal-nitrogen fertilizer treatments and irrigation methods on plant growth and development of cotton, and changes in soil properties were conducted. Nitrogen treatments ranged from 0 to 168.0 kg N/ha in 33.6-kg N/ha increments. Soil samples from each N-treatment from both irrigation blocks were analyzed for active and potential acidity. Irrigation water high in Na⁺, Ca²⁺, and HCO^3? tended to raise soil pH. Under dry land conditions ammonical N-fertilizer lowered soil pH. Reserve acidity was larger under dry land conditions than under furrow irrigation. No significant differences in reserve soil acidity were observed under furrow irrigation, or under dry land conditions. Calcium, Na⁺, and HCO^3? content of the irrigation water were driving forces to reduce both active and potential soil acidity. Fertilization with ammoniacal-nitrogen sources was the driving force in increasing active and potential soil acidity.     

秸秆生物质炭对红壤酸度的改良作用:回顾与展望

回顾了近年来用秸秆生物质炭改良红壤酸度和钝化污染红壤中重金属等方面的研究进展,并对该领域未来的发展趋势作简要展望。     

Soil Fertility,Sugarcane Yield Affected by Limestone,Silicate, and Gypsum Application

The aim of this study was to verify if the application of silicate or lime, in association with gypsum, on sugarcane residue can lead to amendment of subsurface soil acidity, increasing sugarcane yield and profitability. The treatments were: 1 – control (without application of amendments), 2 – gypsum, 3 – dolomitic limestone, 4 – silicate, 5 – dolomitic limestone + gypsum, and 6 – silicate + gypsum. The surface application of gypsum led to reduction in Al (aluminum) contents and Al saturation, and increase in Mg⁺², Ca⁺², K⁺, S–SO₄^?, and base saturation in deeper soil layers, as well as increased yield of stalks, sugar, trash, bagasse, and energy, and greater profit. The application of limestone and silicate, alone or in association with gypsum, amend soil acidity throughout the soil profile. It likewise leads to an increase in stalk, sugar, trash, bagasse, and energy yield, however, application of silicate in association with gypsum leads to the greatest profitability.     

盐化土壤微生物区系及理化性状对不同改良剂的响应研究

系统分析了脱硫废弃物、专用改良剂和不同量菌肥对盐化土壤的改良效应,结果表明:单施脱硫废弃物对土壤细菌和放线菌数量影响很小,但可以有效增加真菌数量;单施专用改良剂或菌肥后微生物数量增幅相对较大,改良剂效果优于菌肥;脱硫废弃物、改良剂和菌肥同时施用可以显著增加土壤微生物数量;单施脱硫废弃物和菌肥对土壤有机质和养分含量、作物收获后的指标影响很小;3种物料同时施用则可以显著提高土壤有机质和养分含量,向日葵的株高、径粗、盘径、实粒数和百粒重都有显著增加。在施用脱硫废弃物和改良剂的前提下,菌肥施用量为45 kg hm-2的处理对盐化土壤改良效果最佳,但与施用量为30 kg hm-2的处理差异不显著。     

Soil and Rice Responses to Phosphate Fertilizer in Two Contrasting Seasons on Acid Sulfate Soil

Acid sulfate soils (ASS) are characterized by low pH, aluminum (Al), and iron (Fe) toxicity and are typically deficient in phosphate (PO₄). The application of phosphorus (P) fertilizer could help reduce the level of exchangeable Al and Fe, thereby improving the rice growth and yield. Five levels of P (0, 20, 40, 60 and 80 kg phosphorus pentoxide (P₂O₅)/ha) were tested with rice varieties MTL560 in the wet season and MTL480 in the dry season. The optimum rate of P was 60 kg P₂O₅/ha for rice in the dry season and 80 kg P₂O₅/ha in the wet season. Soil testing showed at the start of the season that there was sufficient P in the soil. At the end of the season there was a reduction in soil Al and Fe in plots that had P rates above 40 kg P₂O₅/ha. It is therefore likely that P application reduced Al and Fe toxicity through precipitation and formation of Al-P and Fe-P compounds, which boasted yield, rather amending a soil P deficiency.     

南方茶园土壤酸化特征及交换性酸在水稳性团聚体中的分布

通过采集浙江省杭州西湖龙井茶园土壤,研究茶园土壤剖面的酸度特征、养分变化以及交换性酸在水稳性团聚体中的分布特征,以了解南方茶园土壤的酸化过程。结果表明:茶园表层土壤(0-20cm)酸化严重,最低的pHH2O值达到4.0,并且有明显的深层化趋势;表土的有机质和速效磷含量较高,速效磷含量最高可达138.2mg/kg;表土团聚体分级表明茶园土壤有良好的团聚体结构,具有良好的水稳性;除了交换性H+在0.5～0.25mm和0.25～0.106mm水稳性团聚体之间没有明显差别外,交换性酸总量、交换性H+和交换性Al 3+含量均随着水稳性团聚体粒径的减小而降低;水稳性大团聚体中交换性Al 3+相对交换性H+占有明显的优势,而在0.106～0.05mm水稳性微团聚体中交换性H+占有明显的优势。交换性酸总量、交换性H+和交换性铝主要分布于>2mm和2～0.5mm水稳性团聚体中,同时在不同粒级团聚体中的分布随粒径的减小而降低。     

重庆璧山5种典型农林混作模式土壤理化性质及水分入渗特性

利用野外调查和室内分析相结合的方法,研究璧山县血橙—红薯、血橙—花生、血橙—玉米、血橙—茄子、血橙纯林5种模式下土壤理化性质及入渗过程.结果表明:不同模式下土壤容重、孔隙度差异均显著,血橙—红薯模式土壤容重最小,孔隙度最大,血橙纯林土壤容重最大,孔隙度最小;不同模式土壤化学指标差异显著,血橙纯林下土壤各化学指标含量均最低,而血橙—茄子模式土壤有机质及速效钾含量最高,血橙—玉米的全氮及碱解氮含量最高,血橙—红薯模式的全磷、全钾含量最高,血橙—花生模式的有效磷含量最高.不同模式土壤入渗过程不同,入渗曲线斜率不同,血橙—红薯模式达到稳渗时间最长,在50～55 min,血橙—红薯模式土壤初始入渗率、稳定入渗率、平均入渗率最大,分别为血橙纯林的4.82,3.88,4.28倍,而血橙纯林的累积入渗量仅为血橙—红薯模式的25.76％;不同模式土壤入渗能力与土壤容重呈负相关,与孔隙度呈正相关,与有机质相关性不显著.采用入渗模型模拟各模式入渗过程,Horton模型拟合效果较好,决定系数最高,模型参数具有物理意义,是分析和预测璧山血橙林与农作物混作下土壤入渗过程的适宜模型.     

Developing and Evaluation of Ecofriendly Fertilizer from Poultry Waste to Enhance Pulse Production in Alfisols of Semi-arid Tropics

Poultry manure (PM) has long been recognized the most desirable organic fertilizer. It improves soil fertility by adding both major and essential nutrients, as well as soil organic matter, which improves moisture and nutrient retention. The present study investigates the effectiveness of different levels of applied poultry-manure compost (PMC) and phospho-poultry-manure compost (PPMC) on the growth and yield of blackgram (Vigna mungo L). A field experiment was conducted to assess the nutrient-supplying capacity and soil health improvement potential of PMC and PPMC at 3.12, 6.25, 9.37, and 12.5 t/ha and to find the optimum dose of PMC as an organic fertilizer to maximize the pulse production in Alfisols of semi-arid tropics. Application of PPMC at 12.5 and 9.37 t ha^?1 increased the seed yield 105% and 102% more than the no-manure plot. Application of PMC at 12.5 t ha^?1 recorded 80% yield increment than no manure applied and the yield difference of PPMC was 20 to 25% greater than PMC alone. Application of PPMC at 12.5 and 9.37 t ha^?1 resulted in desirable soil physical and chemical properties especially 85 and 70% soil-available P improvement and significant role in increasing yield of blackgram. Application of PPMC at 9.37 t ha^?1 was found to be economically viable to the farmers in terms of improvement in soil properties and crop yield.