Replacement of Shortening in Yellow Layer Cakes by Corn Dextrins

Shortening in a conventional yellow layer cake was replaced by maltodextrin (MD), amylodextrin (AD), octenyl succinylated amylodextrin (OSAD), or mixtures (MD+AD and MD+OSAD). The physical and sensory characteristics of the shortening‐free cakes were investigated. The specific gravity and viscosity of the cake batter, and the volume index of the baked cake were significantly reduced by MD, whereas the cake with added AD or OSAD showed a higher volume index than the control cake containing the shortening. An equivalent mixture of MD and AD, or MD and OSAD, however, produced cakes with a volume index and color defined as ΔE*(ab) that was similar to the control cake. Sensory evaluation revealed that the cakes containing AD or OSAD had significantly higher firmness than the control, but the cakes containing a mixture of MD and AD had firmness, springiness, and overall flavor scores similar to that of the control cake. According to instrumental texture profile analysis (TPA), MD addition, either alone or mixed with AD or OSAD, reduced firmness, whereas AD addition made the cake significantly firmer. When the shortening‐free cakes were stored for eight days at 4°C, TPA revealed greater changes in cake firmness and adhesiveness for MD alone. Cakes made from mixtures of dextrins (MD+AD and MD+OSAD) showed textural change with storage similar to that of the control cake, although the MD+AD cake remained softer than the control.     

Effect of Modified Oat Starch and Protein on Batter Properties and Quality of Cake

Starch and protein separated from oat were chemically modified using cross‐linking and acetylation protocols for starch, and deamidation and succinylation for protein isolate. Cross‐linking decreased swelling power of starch, whereas syneresis increased, but cross‐linking does not have a significant effect on gelatinization temperature. Acetylation increased swelling power, but gelatinization temperature and syneresis diminished. Deamidation and succinylation increased nitrogen solubility index, emulsion activity, foaming capacity, and water and oil binding capacity. Emulsion stability did not change with deamidation and it diminished with succinylation, while foaming stability decreased with both treatments. Acetylated starch and two types of modified proteins were substituted for 5, 10, 15, and 20% of oat flour to bake cake samples and then physical properties of the cakes were measured. Acetylated starch increased batter viscosity, cake volume, and whiteness of cake crust. Increased level of deamidated protein produced cakes with lower batter viscosity, higher volume, and darker color (increase in redness). Application of higher levels of succinylated protein led to higher batter viscosity and lightness, and lower cake volume. Therefore, substitution of deamidated protein and acetylated starch can improve cake properties.     

饼肥中的有机营养物质及其在发酵过程中的变化

分析测定了在恒温、恒湿条件下 4种植物油饼发酵过程中有机物质的变化。结果表明 ,由于不同植物油饼化学组成不同在发酵过程中所产生有机营养物质的成分和数量存在较大差异。发酵过程所产生的高级脂肪酸以C18、C16酸为主 ,并且不饱和脂肪酸的含量明显高于饱和脂肪酸 ;有机酸则以乳酸、苹果酸、柠檬酸、琥珀酸、酒石酸、乙酸含量较高 ,草酸含量较低 ;氨基酸则以谷氨酸含量最高 ,天门冬氨酸、亮氨酸和精氨酸含量次之。有机酸和高级脂肪酸含量随发酵时间的增加而增加 ,腐熟到一定程度时达到最高 ;而饼肥发酵 70d时各种氨基酸含量明显降低。 4种饼肥相比 ,豆饼和花生饼在发酵过程中氨基酸产生量大于芝麻饼和菜籽饼。从速度来看 ,芝麻饼腐熟最快 ,其次是豆饼 ,再次是花生饼 ,菜籽饼腐熟最慢。     

Application of RVA and Time‐Lapse Photography to Explore Effects of Extent of Chlorination,Milling Extraction Rate,and Particle‐Size Reduction of Flour on Cake‐Baking Functionality

Three factors (extent of chlorination, milling extraction rate, and particle‐size reduction) in cake‐baking functionality of Croplan 594W flour were explored using a Rapid Visco‐Analyser (RVA) and time‐lapse photography. The extent of chlorination and milling extraction rate showed dramatic effects, but postmilling to reduce flour particle size was a less significant factor. RVA results showed that starch pasting was accelerated, and both peak and set‐back viscosities were enhanced, with increasing extent of chlorination. These effects were exaggerated by the high sugar concentration relevant to cake baking, compared to the same effects in water. Cake baking with chlorinated flours, in a formulation with 50% sugar (%S) and 275 parts total solvent (TS), showed that, as the extent of chlorination increased, cake moisture content and edge height decreased. Cake center height and shape factor were curvilinear, with maxima near flour with pH 4.6. Dramatic collapse occurred for cakes baked with unchlorinated flour samples, due to delayed starch pasting, as documented by time‐lapse photography and comparison to the geometry of the final cooled cakes. Starch pasting and egg white setting occurred too early for the cakes baked with excessively chlorinated flour (pH ≤4.0), but too late for the cakes baked with unchlorinated or insufficiently chlorinated flours (pH ≥4.9), compared to the ideal starch pasting and egg white setting behavior with appropriately chlorinated flours (pH >4.0 and <4.9). Informal sensory texture evaluation showed that cake mouthfeel was related to both moisture content per se and the relationship between moisture content and cake relative humidity (%RH). Excessive flour chlorination resulted in unacceptably dry cake mouthfeel.     

Effect of Shortening Replacement with Oatrim on the Physical and Rheological Properties of Cakes

Oatrim (oat β‐glucan amylodextrins) was evaluated as a fat substitute in a cake system. The physical and rheological properties of cakes containing shortening replaced with 20, 40, and 60% by weight of Oatrim were characterized. The increase in the specific gravity of the cakes and the decrease in the viscosity as more shortening was replaced with Oatrim were correlated with the change in the cake volume. The number of air bubbles present in the cake batters varied significantly; however, the size of the observed bubbles did not change. The cakes containing more Oatrim displayed a higher starch gelatinization temperature due to the amylodextrins in the Oatrim. The dynamic rheological properties of the cakes were investigated during baking and correlated with the differential scanning calorimetry results. The oscillatory shear storage moduli decreased upon initial heating, then increased due to starch gelatinization, and finally reached a plateau value that varied based on the sample composition. Moreover, increased replacement of shortening with Oatrim resulted in higher observed oscillatory shear storage moduli. The cakes prepared with up to 20% by weight of Oatrim did not evidence significant changes in softness (P < 0.01) and generally exhibited similar physical properties to the control cake.     

Effect of Isomaltooligosaccharide Syrup on Quality Characteristics of Sponge Cake

Sponge cakes were formulated using isomaltooligosaccharide (IMO) syrup as a sweetener to replace 0, 25, 50, 75, and 100% sucrose. The qualities of cakes were evaluated by physicochemical, microbiological, and sensory evaluation analyses. The viscosity in cake batter, cake volume, crumb Hunter a value, and IMO contents of baked cakes increased with increasing IMO syrup level, whereas the specific gravity in cake batter, crust L a b, and crumb L and b values, and hardness of baked cakes showed a reverse trend. The crust and crumb of cakes became darker and less yellow and had a better tender and less sweet texture as IMO syrup level increased and sucrose decreased. The degree of overall liking of cakes increased with increasing IMO syrup level. Total plate counts exceeded 10⁵ CFU/g for cakes stored at 25°C for three days and <10³ CFU/g for the samples stored at 5°C for seven days. The changes in the moisture content, water activity, L a b values, and IMO contents of samples did not differ during storage. Overall, sucrose in the formulation of sponge cakes could be partially or fully replaced with IMO syrup.     

Wheat Starch Effects on the Textural Characteristics of Puffed Brown Rice Cakes

A process was described for creating puffed wheat starch based or hybrid starch and rice snack foods processed in a rice cake puffing machine. Puffed cakes consisting of wheat starch and whole grain brown rice, created by mixing wheat starch beads with brown rice before processing and puffing for 10 sec (cooking time) at 210°C, exhibited greater flexibility and fracture strength than traditional rice cakes. The density of puffed wheat starch cakes decreased with increasing moisture content independent of particle size for particles 0.8–5 mm in diameter. The addition of sucrose and shortening promoted the formation of lower density puffed cakes at lower moistures, while salt had little effect.     

Stability of dried and intermediate moisture tomato pulp during storage

Commercial tomato pulp was air-dried to two final moisture contents in order to obtain intermediate moisture pulp (IMP, 23% moisture) and dried pulp (DP, 9% moisture). IMP and DP were stored at 4, 20, and 37 degrees C for approximately 5 months; periodically samples were analyzed to evaluate heat and oxidative damage by measurement of color changes, total phenolics, rutin, lycopene and furosine concentrations, and antioxidant activity of the lipophilic extract. IMP and DP, despite different drying degree, had similar antioxidant activity; in fact, whereas lycopene was stable to drying treatments, ascorbic acid was totally degraded in both products. During storage, IMP and DP showed different behavior: IMP was more sensitive to degradation than DP, especially with regard to lycopene, rutin, and antioxidant activity degradation and to nonenzymatic browning. Effects of storage temperature varied with regard to different parameters: variations in rutin, furosine, and color indices were higher in products stored at higher temperatures, while lycopene and antioxidant activity of the lipophilic fraction were maximally degraded in products stored at 4 degrees C.     

Effect of Nutrim Oat Bran and Flaxseed on Rheological Properties of Cakes

Cake shortening contents were replaced with Nutrim oat bran (OB) and flaxseed powder, and the effects of these substitutions on the physical and rheological properties of cakes were investigated. Cakes with shortening replaced up to 40% by weight possessed a volume similar to that of the control cake produced with shortening. Replacement using Nutrim OB and flaxseed powder revealed significant color changes in both the cake crust and crumb. At high levels of substitution, the cake crust became lighter, while the crumb darkened. At >40% by weight substitution with either Nutrim OB or flaxseed, the cakes displayed increased hardness; however, cohesiveness and springiness increased gradually with increasing substitution. Increased substitution with Nutrim OB caused an increase in the measured shear viscosity and oscillatory storage and loss moduli of the cakes. Increased substitution with flaxseed caused decreases in these rheological parameters. Additional rheological experiments were performed to elucidate changes in the formulations during the baking process and indicated an increase in the elasticity of the baked batter with decreasing shortening.     

Influence of Temper Duration and Weight Distance on System Output in the Corn Dry‐Milling Process

Initial uniform distribution of moisture in the corn kernel is transformed into nonuniform distribution through tempering to facilitate easy fractionation of corn components. Proper temper duration is essential for effectiveness of the tempering process: a short temper time is insufficient to cause necessary nonuniformity; a long temper duration may allow moisture to redistribute uniformly. Untempered corn suffers from lack of beneficial swelling stress and therefore produces lower yields of flaking grits, coarse grits, and germ. For tempered corn, the system throughput exponentially decreases with temper duration and then stabilizes; the period of stabilization is dependent on weight distance. Throughput values are lower at longer weight distances. At a temper duration of 0.066 m, throughput was ≈33–50% at 0.053 m weight distance. Tail stock fraction rapidly and nonlinearly decreases with increase in temper duration; the rate of decrease is higher at longer weight distance. The peak values of flaking grits can exceed 50% at some combinations of weight distance and temper duration. Coarse grit yields were 9–19% and 16–24% for the shorter and longer weight distances, respectively. Germ recovery improved due to tempering, and differed only by ≈0.5% at the two weight distances. Tempering lowered the oil content of flaking grit, but the temper duration did not have much influence on moisture content of various fractions.     

Influence of thermal processing conditions on acrylamide generation and browning in a potato model system

Fried potato products such as French fries and chips may contain substantial amounts of acrylamide. Numerous efforts are undertaken to minimize the acrylamide content of these products while sensory properties such as color and flavor have to be respected as well. An optimization of the frying process can be achieved if the basic kinetic data of the browning and acrylamide formation are known. Therefore, heating experiments with potato powder were performed under controlled conditions (moisture, temperature, and time). Browning and acrylamide content both increased with heating time at all temperatures and moisture contents tested. The moisture content had a strong influence on the activation energy of browning and acrylamide formation. The activation energy strongly increased at moisture contents below 20%. At higher moisture contents, it was very similar for both parameters. At low moisture contents, the activation energy of acrylamide formation was larger as compared to the one for browning. This explains why the end of the frying process is very critical. Therefore, a lower temperature toward the end of frying reduces the acrylamide content of the product while color development is still good.     

红肉火龙果粉的发泡微波冷冻干燥制备与质量评价

制备浆果粉末产品是延长其货架期的有效手段。为降低干燥过程能耗和保留产品营养成分,该研究以平均含水率(87.03±1.26)%的新鲜红肉火龙果果浆为原料,采用冷冻干燥和喷雾干燥两种方法制备了火龙果粉末。以残余湿含量、色泽和典型生物活性成分甜菜红素、芦丁和总酚保留率为指标对产品质量进行了评价。用质量比为3%(w/w)的分离乳清蛋白和2.5%(w/w)的果胶为添加剂制备了未发泡和发泡2种样品,进行了传统和微波冷冻干燥试验。结果表明,使用石英底盘,在30℃、20 Pa下,发泡样品比未发泡样品冷冻干燥时间缩短了39.06%;施加1 W微波功率时,未发泡和发泡样品微波冷冻干燥时间比无微波时分别缩短了18.75%和12.82%。用碳化硅底盘替代石英底盘,在30℃、20 Pa和1 W下,发泡样品微波冷冻干燥时间比未发泡和发泡样品传统无微波冷冻干燥分别缩短了65.62%和43.59%。分别以5.5%(w/w)的分离乳清蛋白和15.6%(w/w)的麦芽糊精为添加剂,进行了喷雾干燥试验。工艺参数为进风温度150℃、出风温度85℃、进料速度28 mL/min。冷冻干燥产品的甜菜红素、芦丁和总酚保留率分别在72...     

Baking Formula Innovation to Eliminate Chlorine Treatment of Cake Flour

Chlorine treatment of soft wheat flour improves cake volume and produces a stiffer, more resilient crumb. Four pairs of chlorine‐treated and untreated flours were obtained. A selected portion of the area under the Rapid Visco Analyser hot pasting flour viscosity curve was used to determine how much starch could be used with a nonchlorine‐treated flour so that the area is equivalent to that produced by a chlorine‐treated cake flour with no added starch. Replacement of nonchlorine‐treated flour with up to 43% starch produced areas under the pasting curve that were equivalent to those produced by chlorine‐treated flours. Increased concentration of dried egg albumen plus added soya lecithin and xanthan gum were included in the formulation containing starch and nonchlorine treated flour to produce a new basic ingredient set. The basic ingredient set was evaluated for its influence on cake geometry, crumb structure, and crumb texture response to compression (hardness and spring‐back rate). High‐ratio white layer cakes using the new basic ingredient set produced similar or better cake quality characteristics than those produced using control chlorine‐treated flours. The same new basic ingredient set was used to produce pound cakes, cupcakes, and sheet cakes using nonchlorinated flours. The geometry and objective texture of those cakes also were equivalent to respective cakes produced with chlorine‐treated flour. The basic ingredient set does not require any special flour treatment.     

Effect of inhibitor compounds on Nε-(carboxymethyl)lysine (CML) and Nε-(carboxyethyl)lysine (CEL) formation in model foods

The possible adverse effects on health of diet-derived advanced glycation endproducts (AGEs) and advanced lipoxidation endproducts (ALEs) is of current interest. This study had the objective of determining the effects of the addition of AGE/ALE inhibitors and different types of sugar and cooking oil on Nε-(carboxymethyl)lysine (CML) and Nε-(carboxyethyl)lysine (CEL) formation in model foods (sponge cakes). The cake baked using glucose produced the highest level of CML (2.07±0.24 mmol/mol lysine), whereas the cake baked using fructose produced the highest concentration of CEL (25.1±0.15 mmol/mol lysine). There were no significant differences between CML concentrations formed in the cakes prepared using different types of cooking oil, but significant differences (P<0.001) were observed between the cakes prepared using different proportions of cooking oil. The cakes containing oil generated greater concentrations of CML than sucrose. α-Tocopherol and rutin did not inhibit CML and CEL formation. In contrast, ferulic acid and thiamin, thiamin monophosphate, and thiamin pyrophosphate reduced CML and CEL formation.     

Preservation of Head Rice Yield Under High‐Temperature Tempering as Explained by the Glass Transition of Rice Kernels

Tempering has been shown in literature to preserve head rice yield after heated air drying. Most reported tempering work was done adiabatically at a temperature below that for rice drying. In this study, the effect of a tempering temperature above that for rice drying on the whole kernel percentage was investigated. High‐temperature tempering is an effective way to preserve the whole kernel percentage for rice dried at a raised temperature (e.g., 60°C) at which head rice yield would otherwise incur a pronounced reduction without tempering. Tempering helped relax the strains inside a rice kernel induced by internal stresses developed during the drying process. The strains had two components (elastic component and viscous component) due to the viscoelasticity of rice kernels. The reduction of moisture content gradients inside a rice kernel during tempering helped eliminate the elastic component of the strains due to the elasticity of the rice kernel. Results showed that to effectively eliminate the viscous component of the strains due to the viscosity of the rice kernel, tempering temperatures must be kept well above the glass transition temperature of the rice kernel. A tempering temperature below the glass transition temperature failed to preserve the whole kernel percentage. For example, with a tempering temperature of 80°C and a tempering duration of 80 min, the whole kernel percentage for the rice with an initial moisture content of 20.4% wb dried at 60°C and 17% rh for 120 min down to 10.2% wb (10.2 percentage points of moisture content removal in one drying pass) was preserved to a level close to that of the control sample.     

Measurement of Contour and Volume Changes During Cake Baking

Volume is an important characteristic in the evaluation of cakes and cake quality, relating to the underlying structural development of the cake. A method for evaluation of changes in contour and volume during the cake baking process is proposed: the height profile method. Volumes of baked cakes were determined using two standard methods, rapeseed displacement and cross‐sectional tracings, and compared with height profile analysis to determine the accuracy of the new method for cake volume analysis. Height analysis values did not significantly differ from rapeseed and tracing results. The height profile method was used to analyze and calculate changes in volume during the baking process for cakes made with chlorine‐treated and nonchlorine‐treated flours. The method was also able to depict changes in contour of the baking cakes, showing definite differences in contour development between chlorine‐treated and nonchlorinetreated flours. The height profile method of volume determination is a nonintrusive method that can be employed in the study of volumetric and contour changes of cakes while they bake.     

Influence of drying temperature, water content, and heating rate on gelatinization of corn starches

The gelatinization properties of starch extracted from corn and waxy corn dried at different temperatures were determined at various water contents and heating rates by differential scanning calorimetry. All gelatinization transition temperatures increased with drying temperature and heating rate. Onset and peak temperatures remained relatively constant, whereas end temperature decreased in the presence of excess water. The gelatinization enthalpy (deltaH(g)) of corn starch decreased with drying temperature at 50% water; however, it remained constant for waxy corn starch. The effects of water content and heating rate on deltaH(g) were dependent on each other. The minimum water levels required for gelatinization of starch extracted from corn dried at 20 and 100 degrees C are 21 and 29%, respectively. The activation energy (E(a)) was calculated using an Arrhenius-type equation and two first-order models; the degree of conversion (alpha) was predicted using a newly proposed model that produced good results for both E(a) and alpha.     

Factors Affecting Cake Firmness and Cake Moisture Content as Evaluated by Response Surface Methodology

Values of initial fat temperature, mixing intensity, mixing time, and mass ratio of fat and sucrose (F/S ratio) were varied in the preparation of fat-sugar cream. The dependence of cake firmness and cake moisture content on these values, the size of sucrose particles, and storage time were studied using response surface methodology. The logarithm of storage time and F/S ratio proved to be the best predictors for both cake firmness and cake moisture content in the creamed cake. An interaction between fat temperature and F/S ratio had a notable influence and size of sucrose particles had a slight influence on cake firmness. Besides logarithm of time and F/S ratio, mixing intensity was the only factor that affected cake moisture content significantly.