Effects of pretension in bolts on hysteretic responses of moment-carrying timber joints

The adoption of a concept similar to the prestressing technique used in laminated wood decks of bridge structures might increase the initial stiffness or ultimate resistance of dowel-type timber joints by applying pretension to their bolts. This study investigated the effect of pretension in bolts on hysteretic responses and ultimate properties of moment-carrying timber joints with steel side plates. A pretension of 20 kN that yielded a prestress level of 1600 kPa or about 90% of the allowable long-term end-bearing strength of spruce species was applied to the bolts of prestressed joints. The superiority of the prestressed joint over the non-pre-stressed joint was proved by very high hysteretic damping, equivalent viscous damping ratio, and cyclic stiffness. At any given rotation level, hysteretic damping reduction and moment resistance decrement due to continuously reversed loads were found to be small because bolt pretensioning minimized the pinching effect. This study showed that the hysteresis loop of the prestressed joint can be obtained by adding the frictional hysteresis loop due to pretension force into the hysteresis loop of the non-pre-stressed joint. Despite a great increase of initial stiffness, only slight increments in ductility coefficient and ultimate moment resistance were found in the prestressed joint.     

Load-carrying capacity of steel-to-timber joints with a pretensioned bolt

Previous experimental studies reported that bolt pretensioning greatly increases the initial stiffness and load-carrying capacity of bolted joints. It is also a matter of great importance to structural designers to understand the effect of pretension on the load-carrying capacities of bolted joints, and this study presents an extended yield model that considers the fastener’s pretension force. In the extended yield model, the load-carrying capacity was defined as the load at a slip of 15 mm. The ultimate fastener bending angle at the yielded cross section equivalent to this joint slip, which was affected by the fastener’s axial force, was iteratively evaluated in numerical analyses. The introduction of bolt pretensioning largely increased the joint slip resistance at initial loading, but it decreased the ultimate fastener bending angle. This decrease of fastener bending angle resulted in a relatively low stiffness hardening (or secondary stiffness), which is caused by secondary axial forces associated with embedment of steel plates into the wood member. Prediction was verified by the tests of 36 steel-to-timber joints under three different pretension forces and two loading directions relative to the grain. Some of the observed load-carrying capacities of the joints, particularly in loading perpendicular to the grain, however, were not as high as those expected by the numerical analyses considering the given pretension forces.     

Generation of radial growth stresses in the big rays of konara oak trees

 In previous models the distribution of radial tensile stresses in the tree trunk has been explained as a response to the mechanisms of growth stress generation in the longitudinal and tangential directions. We investigated the contribution of ray tissue to growth stress generation in the tree trunk by the origin of the radial stresses during differentiation of parenchyma cells. Measurements on three konara oak trees (Quercus serrata Thunb.) were carried out comparing the radial residual strain of big oak rays with the radial residual strain of the axial tissues (containing only uniseriate rays). The results indicated that the ray tissue generated tensile growth stress in the radial direction of the trunk (the axial direction of the parenchyma cells). In contrast to previous assumptions, the growth stresses seem to be variable in relation to the individual tissue types. The mechanical advantage of a radially prestraining effect of the rays is discussed for the living tree. Received: October 9, 2001 / Accepted: April 22, 2002 Acknowledgments This research was carried out during a 2-month short-term stay of the first author at Nagoya University. The financial and organizational support by Monbusho Foundation is gratefully acknowledged. Correspondence to:I. Burgert     

Relaxation mechanism of residual stress inside logs by heat treatment: choosing the heating time and temperature

 Some methods to reduce residual stress inside logs have been reported, although the conditions for stress relaxation are not yet clarified. Our study using precise experiments revealed that residual stress relaxation occurs only when both heat and moisture exist inside the logs. We then determined the heating time and temperature required to relax the residual stress inside the logs. Short air-drying treatments did not relax residual stress even though free water in the logs was greatly reduced. The residual stress of the 33-h 80°C-heated bolts was relaxed, whereas that of the 48-h 70°C-heated bolts was not. As for the influence of treatment time, bolts heated at 100°C were relaxed after 18 h of treatment. The 13-h heated bolts did not show any relaxation. Therefore, residual stress relaxation occurred rapidly owing to the thermomechanical change of the individual wood components comprising the cell wall. The moisture content inside all the bolts was much higher than the fiber saturation point. This is because relaxation occurs only when the heating temperature is maintained above 80°C for a particular duration of treatment. Received: December 12, 2001 / Accepted: February 18, 2002 Present address: Institute for Structural and Engineering Materials, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Sciences and Technology, Independent Administrative Institution, Nagoya 463-8560, Japan Tel. +81-52-736-7320; Fax +81-52-736-7419 e-mail: m.nogi@aist.go.jp Part of this report was presented at the 50th Annual Meeting of the Japan Wood Research Society, Kyoto, April 2000 Correspondence to:M. Nogi     

The modelling of time-dependant deformation in wood using chemical kinetics

Summary The development of rheological models to predict creep has led to the derivation of quite complex equations that can predict creep reasonably accurately. However, these models are conceptual and are not based on a fundamental understanding of the actual deformation processes occurring within the material. The concept of modelling creep using a chemical kinetic approach is one that attempts to understand creep in wood at a molecular level and, from this, to develop models that more accurately predict creep deflections.This paper presents two models developed from chemical kinetic theory, that describe the time-dependant deformation of wood. The validity of applying these models to experimental data has been assessed by stress relaxation tests on thin samples of Sequoia sempervirens. Two stages of experimentation were carried out. In stage 1, both models were applied to the results of stress relaxation tests on 6 samples. Similar values of activation energy and activation volume were calculated by both models and a single energy barrier was found to dominate the deformation process.In stage 2, the effect of varying the initial applied stress on activation energy and activation volume was assessed by carrying out stress relaxation tests at stress levels of 25%, 30% and 35% of the short-term strength. Values of activation energy and activation were found to increase as the applied stress level decreased.Both models describe the time-dependent behaviour of wood well, however their ability to predict long-term creep deflections may be limited. Future work will develop these models further in order to improve long-term creep prediction and then apply them to the results of both creep and stress relaxation tests at a variety of stress levels and moisture contents in order to test their validity.     

Thermal-softening properties and cooling set of water-saturated bamboo within proportional limit

Thermal-softening properties and cooling set of water-saturated bamboo were investigated using stressrelaxation measurements in heating and cooling processes, followed by residual deflection measurement. In the heating process, an obvious decrease in relative relaxation modulus due to thermal-softening of lignin was found at around 60°C. On the other hand, no clear change in the relative relaxation modulus was recognized in the cooling process. After the cooling process, about 65% and 75% of residual set was measured when the specimen was loaded on the epidermis and endodermis side, respectively. Also, residual set depended on the maximum temperature reached in the heating process and the unloaded temperature in the cooling process. From these results, it was deduced that the glass transition of lignin from the rubbery to glassy state is important to fix the deformation. Comparing thermal-softening behavior between bamboo and wood, the relative relaxation modulus of wood decreased steeply at higher temperatures than for bamboo. On the other hand, while about 75% of residual set was also found for wood, almost the same as for bamboo, the recovery of deformation with time was larger for wood than for bamboo. Part of this article was presented at the 53rd Annual Meeting of the Japan Zairyou Society, Okayama, May 2004     

云杉胶合木钢板斜螺钉连接的剪切性能研究

为准确评价斜螺钉连接钢 木节点的剪切性能,探明其受力机理,以云杉胶合木、钢板和自攻螺钉作为研究材料,测试不同荷载方向与受力情况下斜螺钉连接节点的承载性能,将试验数据与国外规范中的计算模型进行对比,提高了侧边钢板 胶合木(钢 木)斜螺钉连接节点承载性能的预测能力。结果表明:自攻螺钉与剪切面之间的角度变化对其在钢 木节点承受剪 压复合应力的承载力影响不明显,当偏转为剪 拉复合应力时,节点承载力明显增大,并在30°~45°获得最大值;剪 压复合应力时,现行EC5公式计算剪 压节点的极限承载力非常不安全;EC5的刚度预测结果在剪 压复合应力区和垂直剪切面钉入时,与试验值吻合度很高,但对剪 拉区节点的滑移模量没有预测性;将Tomasi模型应用于斜螺钉连接钢 木节点滑移模量理论计算时,在45°~90°时与试验值吻合度极高。单颗自攻螺钉的抗拔刚度计算节点滑移模量的方法极为有效,具有较高的借鉴意义。     

木结构燕尾榫节点应力分析研究

以古建筑中燕尾榫节点为研究对象,依照《营造法式》“材分制”标准,设计三个不同模型比例的二等材燕尾榫节点和一个三等材燕尾榫节点,基于ABAQUS对其进行单调加载与低周循环加载模拟试验,得到燕尾榫节点的拔榫量转角关系与应力状态。试验结果表明:节点模型比例越大拔榫量越大,且同模型比例下二等材较三等材拔榫量更大;模拟中榫头顺纹方向、剪应力均未超过应力极限,而横纹径向除节点YS-3外均达到屈服,进入弱强化段;榫头等效塑性应变(PEEQ)值呈线性增长,在榫头端部的PEEQ值最小,榫颈处PEEQ值达到最大。     

Effects of periodic temperature changes on stress relaxation of chemically treated wood

In order to clarify the relationship between the microstructural changes and the rheological behaviors of four chemically treated woods (delignified wood, hemicellulose-removed wood, DMSO swollen and decrystallization treated wood), the stress relaxation of wood with three different moisture contents was determined during periodic temperature changes. The experimental results show that after wood relaxation for 4 h at 25℃, the stress decays sharply when the temperature increases and 2 h later the stress recovers again when the temperature drops back to the original point. The additional stress relaxation, produced after temperature begins to increase, is mainly caused by the thermal swelling, molecular thermal movement and the break of a part of residual hydrogen bonds. The number of hydrogen bonds and the size and amount of cavities in various treated woods greatly affect themagnitude of the additional relaxed stress and the recovery stress.     

Effect of decay on shear performance of dowel-type timber joints

Monotonic and reversed cyclic loading tests were conducted on dowel-type timber joints with varying degrees of wood decay due to Fomitopsis palustris (Berk. et Curt.), a brown rot fungus, and the effect of decay on various shear performances of dowel-type joints was investigated. For joints affected by the brown rot fungus, the initial stiffness, yield load, and maximum load of dowel-type joints were significantly decreased, even with a small mass loss of wood. The reductions in shear performance were the largest for initial stiffness, followed by yield load and maximum load, in that order. For a 1% reduction of the yield load, initial stiffness and maximum load showed reductions of 1.15% and 0.77%, respectively. When dowel-type joints that had been exposed to the brown rot fungus were subjected to reversed cyclic loading, the gap between the dowel and the lead hole of the wood was increased and equivalent viscous damping was decreased. These results indicate that decay around the dowel lead hole especially affects the load-displacement behavior at small displacement level, and dowel-type joints under cyclic loading have very low resistance to forces acting on the wooden structure. Part of this report was presented at the 5th Symposium on Timber Bridges of the Japan Society of Civil Engineers, Tokyo, July 2006; the 56th Annual Meeting of the Japan Wood Research Society, Akita, August 2006; and the Annual Meeting of the Architectural Institute of Japan, Fukuoka, August 2007     

Effect of steam explosion treatments on drying rates and moisture distributions during radio-frequency/vacuum drying of larch pillar combined with a longitudinal kerf

This study was carried out to investigate the effects of steam explosion treatment on drying rates, moisture distribution, shrinking, and checking during radio-frequency/vacuum drying of Korean larch pillar combined with a longitudinal kerf. All the pillars except the nonkerf/control with high initial moisture content (MC) could be dried within 89 h from the green condition to about 15% MC. In pillars with high initial moistures or in the early stage of drying, the drying rates were sharply accelerated by steam explosion treatments. The final moisture gradients along the transverse direction were gentler for the steamexploded pillars and for pillars with a longitudinal kerf, respectively, than for the unexploded pillars and for pillars without a longitudinal kerf. The moisture gradients along the longitudinal direction on all the layers were gentler for the pillars with a longitudinal kerf than for those without the kerf. Formation of checking was significantly controlled in the pillars with a longitudinal kerf. All the steam-exploded pillars except the kerf/1-cycle, however, were more severely damaged by checks than the unexploded pillars. A prong test revealed an extremely low level of residual stress for all the dried pillars.     

Analysis of load-slip characteristics of nailed wood joints: application of a two-dimensional geometric nonlinear analysis

We used a two-dimensional finite element method to analyze the load-slip characteristics of nailed wooden joints sheathed with a panel. We used tests of nail bending, nail shank embedment in a wood or a panel, nail-head embedment in a face of a panel, nail withdrawing from a wood, friction between a wood and a panel, and initial axial forces of the nails. The values of the material properties for the analytical models were determined with the above tests. With a conventional one-dimensional analysis it is impossible to evaluate the shearing performance accurately because the axial forces of the nail are not calculated. Therefore, we used two-dimensional geometric nonlinear analysis. The computed load-slip curves closely matched the original experimental results; and when the friction and initial axial forces were considered, the computed curves were more likely to match the original experimental results. Our results suggested that it is better to use geometric nonlinear analysis to analyze the shearing characteristics of nailed joints, and that friction and axial forces are important factors for accurate analysis.Parts of this report were presented at the 7th World Conference on Timber Engineering, Malaysia, August 2002     

盐胁迫下罗汉松生长和生理变化的研究

室内水培条件下设计盐胁迫梯度试验,通过新梢生长量、新根数等形态指标和Na 、K 含量比、脯氨酸含量、叶绿素含量、SOD活性等生理指标的测定,研究了罗汉松幼苗在不同盐胁迫条件下的动态响应过程.结果表明:(1)罗汉松在盐胁迫初期,低盐条件下有利新梢生长,高盐条件下抑制新梢生长;但延长胁迫时间,低盐条件也一定程度地抑制新梢生长.(2)在低盐和中盐条件下罗汉松仍能发根,但高盐条件下新根发生基本停止.(3)随着胁迫程度加剧和胁迫时间延长,Na 、K 含量比呈上升趋势,但低盐和中盐条件下Na 、K 含量比值较接近,而高盐条件下Na 、K 含量比明显升高.(4)不同程度的盐胁迫使脯氨酸含量显著增加,但随胁迫时间延长,脯氨酸含量呈下降趋势.(5)叶绿素在低盐条件下未受明显破坏,但在中盐和高盐条件下受破坏较大.(6)胁迫初期,SOD在低盐和中盐条件下活性较高,高盐条件下活性降低;胁迫后期,低盐条件下SOD活性维持较高水平,但中盐和高盐条件下SOD明显下降.     

Diurnal variation in leaf extension of Salix viminalis at two nitrogen supply rates

To investigate how nitrogen supply might affect the biophysical factors controlling diurnal variation in leaf extension, pot-grown Salix viminalis L. were supplied with nitrogen at a low relative addition rate of 0.05 g N g(-1) N day(-1) (low N) or were given free access to all nutrients (high N). Leaf extension, turgor pressure, turgor after stress relaxation and the plastic extensibility of leaf tissue were determined for growing leaves every 4 h during two days of clear skies in August. Plants in the high-N treatment had a significantly higher relative growth rate, dry weight, shoot/root ratio, leaf nitrogen concentration, total leaf area, final area of single leaves and epidermal cell size than plants in the low-N treatment. The periodicity of leaf extension was similar in both treatments with high values during the afternoon and early evening, and negligible values during the night and in the early morning. The maximum rate of leaf extension was higher in high-N than in low-N plants. Leaf water potential and leaf osmotic potential decreased in the morning and increased in the afternoon with highest values during the night. Calculated values of turgor pressure showed no consistent diurnal trend and did not correlate with the rate of leaf extension. There was no consistent difference in turgor between treatments. Turgor after stress relaxation varied diurnally. The difference between turgors before and after stress relaxation also varied diurnally and was largely in phase with the diurnal pattern of leaf extension. These data are consistent with either a causal role for growth turgor (difference between turgors before and after stress relaxation) in the regulation of cell expansion, or a diurnal variation in turgors after relaxation, attributable to different capacities for cell wall loosening at different times of day. Plastic extensibility of leaf tissue showed no diurnal pattern but consistently higher values were found in high-N than in low-N plants. We conclude that the effects of nitrogen supply on leaf water relations did not limit leaf extension, but that nitrogen supply did affect processes associated with cell wall loosening and enlargement. Nitrogen supply did not affect final values of turgor after relaxation, but it presumably affected the rate at which relaxation proceeded.     

Estimation of stiffness and strength in timber knee joints with adhesive and verification by experiment

The use of adhesive joints is gradually increasing, especially those with glued-in steel rods (GIRs). There are, however, some problems with the design methods when used for moment-transmitting applications. In this article, design methods for GIRs and cross-lapped glued joints (CLJs) are proposed. For CLJs, we made a hypothesis that both rotational deformation of CLJ and stress of the glue line occurred with bending and shearing deformation of the timber. Using this hypothesis and Kelvin’s theorem, a mechanical model of CLJ is proposed. For GIRs, the axial stress component of the rod and the lateral stress component of the rod were taken into account using the theory of a beam on an elastic foundation. From the comparisons between calculations and experimental results, it was recognized that the stiffness and strength of CLJs and GIRs could be predicted precisely using our proposed models.     

圆锯片淬火残余应力的实验研究

就65Mn钢圆锯片基片淬火过程中残余应力的分布特点进行了实验研究,结果表明:经淬火后基片径/切向残余应力主要呈拉应力状态,其中水淬造成较大的残余拉应力,切向拉应力过大是造成基片开裂、变形的主要原因.油淬的残余拉应力较小,生产中若采用油或类似的冷速进行淬火,就能较好的控制淬火质量,为回火和平整等后续工艺奠定基础.     

Mechanical response of wood perpendicular to grain when subjected to changes of humidity

This paper describes the deformations caused by stress and humidity interaction, mechano-sorption, in the cross grain directions of wood and the relaxation or accumulation of internal stresses caused by these deformations. Long-term tests on small clear specimens in cyclic climates with both tensile and compressive loads were carried out. The development of internal stresses in timber was measured indirectly at different times during the adsorption and desorption processes. Released deformations were measured from cross-sections after cutting them to small slices. These deformations were used to estimate the internal stresses caused by the humidity variations. Tests with constant loads and multiple humidity cycles show a mechano-sorptive strain that is ten times higher than the elastic strain. It is shown that existing models for describing mechano-sorption perpendicular to grain are inaccurate when applied to multiple humidity cycles. The present results demonstrate that if the mechano-sorptive behaviour and the moisture gradients in wood can be accurately described, it is possible to predict the stress distribution in a timber cross-section by knowing the climate history.     

Growth strain assessment at the periphery of small-diameter trees using the two-grooves method: influence of operating parameters estimated by numerical simulations

The two-grooves method used for estimating the surface locked-in strains on standing stems was studied using a finite-element model simulating the gauge measurement resulting from the groove cutting, having in mind the particular of small diameter trees. The assumed growth stress distribution was described by simple polynomial expressions of the relative radius with the possible existence of a tension wood sector characterized by higher residual stresses in the longitudinal direction. The end effect of the crosscutting vanished for a height/diameter ratio higher than 3 and the simulated gauge measurement reasonably approached the local growth strain average. For very small trees with a diameter of about 2 cm, the distance between gauge end and groove should not exceed 3 mm, a value of up to 5 mm is allowed in case of larger stems, 5–20 cm. For any combination of stem diameter, gauge length, groove distance and depth, and assumptions on the internal stress distributions, the underestimation of the surface growth strain by the gauge can be evaluated using the developed numerical tool.     

Effect of moisture content of members on mechanical properties of timber joints

To investigate the effect of moisture content (MC) of members on the mechanical properties of timber joints, bending tests of precut joints and shear tests of dowel-type joints were carried out using timbers of Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica D. Don) with three moisture conditions: green, kiln-dried with a MC target of 15%, and over-kiln-dried with a MC target of 5%. For the bending test, timbers were processed with a precut processing machine into “koshikake-ari” (a kind of dovetail joint) and “koshikake-kama” (a kind of mortise and tenon joint). A pair of members was jointed together without mechanical fasteners. Bolts (diameter = 12 mm) and nails (diameter = 2.45 mm) were used as dowels in the shear test. Bolted joints were constructed with one bolt and two metal side plates. Two nails and two metal side plates were used for the nailed joint. For precut joints, no clear effect of MC was recognized on maximum moment and initial stiffness. The maximum strength of mechanical joints assembled with kiln-dried wood was changed by the degree of drying. Stiffness of the joints assembled with kiln-dried specimens was larger than that of the joints assembled with green specimens.Part of this study was presented at the 7th International IUFRO Wood Drying Conference, Tsukuba, July 2001     

黑木耳多糖-银离子螯合物的制备工艺研究

研究了螯合时间,黑木耳多糖与银离子质量比,pH,银离子初始浓度等因素对黑木耳多糖银离子螯合的影响。通过正交试验,得到了螯合的最佳工艺条件：螯合时间为10h,pH为3,黑木耳多糖与银离子质量比为5∶1,银离子初始浓度为2mg/mL。红外光谱分析表明,银离子与黑木耳多糖形成了螯合物。