Understanding the Non‐Metropolitan—Metropolitan Digital Divide

Abstract A consistent gap exists between home Internet use in metropolitan areas and in non‐metropolitan areas in the U.S. This digital divide may stem from technology differences in home Internet connectivity. Alternatively, differences in education, income, and other household attributes may explain differences in metropolitan and non‐metropolitan area home Internet access. Effective programs to reduce the metropolitan–non‐metropolitan digital divide must be based on an understanding of the relative roles that technology and household characteristics play in determining differential Internet usage. The household Internet adoption decision is modeled using a logit estimation approach with data from the 2001 U.S. Current Population Survey Internet and Computer Use Supplement. A decomposition of separate metropolitan and non‐metropolitan area estimates shows that differences in household attributes, particularly education and income, account for 63 percent of the current metropolitan–non‐metropolitan digital divide. The result raises significant doubts that policies which focus solely on infrastructure and technology access will mitigate the current metropolitan–non‐metropolitan digital divide.     

The association between minority racial/ethnic groups and travel mode choices

This study highlights the association between minority racial/ethnic groups and travel mode choices according to a multitude of neighborhood characteristics, travel modes, and purposes in the Delaware Valley region. This study finds that minority racial/ethnic groups show different travel mode choices than whites. For instance, Blacks and Hispanics are less inclined to walk/bike, whereas whites prefer to use household carpool in high density areas when they go home. This study also highlights that minority racial/ethnic groups choose different travel modes according to travel purposes. For instance, blacks in ethnic neighborhoods are less inclined to use household carpool, whereas Asians are more apt to use it for the purpose of home. The results show that urban planners should design transportation policies for minority groups based on race/ethnicity, neighborhood characteristics, and travel purposes.     

Urban Polycentricity and the Costs of Commuting: Evidence from Italian Metropolitan Areas

Polycentricity at the metropolitan scale is perhaps the model of spatial organisation that needs to be investigated more thoroughly as regards its effects on travel. The aim of this paper is to test the role of polycentricity—as well as other spatial characteristics, such as compactness, functional diversification and size—in the costs of commuting, taking into account an external cost component (per‐capita CO₂ emissions) and a private cost component (time spent on travelling). The degree of urban polycentricity has been measured by adopting a dynamic approach based on commuting flows and on social network analysis tools. The analysis is carried out using a database of 82 Italian metropolitan areas (MAs). Results show that MAs with a higher degree of polycentricity are more virtuous both in terms of private and external costs of mobility, while the degree of compactness is associated with lower environmental costs but with higher private costs. Size is associated with both higher external and private costs, while the role of functional diversification turns out to be statistically insignificant. Socio‐demographics also play a role.     

Internal Migration in Mexico: Consolidation of Urban–Urban Mobility, 2000–2015

Internal migration has been recognized as the major influence in terms of population redistribution across urban systems, but it is not a homogeneous phenomenon. Within the context of internal rural‐urban migration decline and the negative changes in migratory balances in the metropolitan area of Mexico City, the core of enquiry in this paper is the approach to growth and consolidation of an internal urban–urban migration system in the early twenty‐first century (2000–2015). This process has taken place through two main networks, among metropolitan areas not corresponding to the principal city and among intermediate cities. Internal migration is a complex process that involves both individual and spatial characteristics and which leads to spatially uneven development in the long term. Data from three censuses of the population of Mexico (2000, 2010, and 2015) show a transition to a more urban–urban migration pattern, with skilled migrants tending to have metropolitan and urban destinations, whereas less‐skilled migrants prefer rural and small urban destinations.     

Public Sector Agglomeration in Developed Countries: The Role of Oversight

A small but growing body of empirical research underscores the relationship between a city's status as a political capital and its status within an urban hierarchy. Both theoretical and empirical work has attributed this to the agglomeration effects of government activity in the capital. The hypothesis of this paper is that this agglomeration is driven by distance‐based transaction costs of oversight. This hypothesis is tested using a sample of U.S. metropolitan statistical areas for the years 2001–2008. The results are consistent with the hypothesis. Specifically, the empirical results indicate that greater distance from the capital is related to lower levels of government employment and expenditure per government employee among noncapital metropolitan areas.     

Border crossing of Muslim women in southern‐border provinces of Thailand

In general, the main roles of married Thai Muslim women were as home makers good wives and good mothers. Nevertheless, both married and single women from rural areas have been increasingly obliged to work outside the household, locally and in other countries. People in rural areas are now faced with the difficulty of maintaining their livelihoods if they depended on agricultural production alone. In some instances, female migration might be a response to families not being able to survive on the incomes earned by the male household heads. In response, women in southern Thailand provinces use long‐standing social networks that facilitate their migration for work, because they benefit from the close proximity, language, and religion that they share with the destination area. Commonly, they travel to work in Malaysia by using a border pass, while some travel and work without any documents. The effects of crossing national borders on migrants themselves and on their communities are mixed, generally positive from an economic perspective, but negative from a social viewpoint. Socially negative responses reflect a system of social control in the region based on patriarchy.     

Determinants of the Travel Behavior of the Suburban Elderly

In recent years, a significant feature of population change in North American metropolitan areas has been the rapid suburbanization of elderly people. The ability to engage in routine activity may be a necessary condition for the maintenance of independent life styles and psychological well‐being among older suburbanites. Using a conceptual framework based on Parmelee and Lawton's ecological model of aging, this article offers an exploratory investigation of the determinants of the travel of separate samples of elderly male and female suburbanites to each of five destination categories of key service/activity sites in a Canadian city. The results of the tests of ten multiple regression models disclose that the levels of explanation of trip frequency afforded by “autonomy components” (e.g. health‐related characteristics, living arrangements, and income level) vary according to destination category. However, the explanatory power of “security components” (i.e. variables concerning access to destination categories) is generally low. Overall, the findings of the study provide a basis for developing a deeper understanding of the repetitive travel behavior of elderly suburbanites.     

Critical Transport Infrastructure in Urban Areas: Impacts of Traffic Incidents Assessed Using Accessibility‐Based Network Vulnerability Analysis

Incidents (vehicle breakdowns, crashes, roadworks, lane blockages, severe weather, etc.) are believed responsible for about 50 percent of traffic congestion in Australia's major cities, which is a similar situation to that found in cities in many other parts of the developed world. Incident‐based congestion is particularly disruptive because of its random occurrence in space and time, which maximises the operational impacts of the congestion on social and economic activities. This paper discusses a method for assessing critical locations—congestion “hot spots”—in urban road networks, and the development and application of diagnostic tools that will allow urban road system managers to anticipate potential vulnerabilities to incident‐related congestion and take proactive action to avoid congestion rather than react to it. The expected outcomes are then reduced congestion, delays, and pollution; significantly improved performance from the existing urban road system; and reduced pressure to build more roads. The method involves modelling of travel demand, network topology, capacity and road geometry, the identification and assessment of impacts of traffic incidents at specific locations in a road network, and the use of accessibility impact analysis to assess system‐wide effects. Accessibility impact analysis is undertaken using an accessibility framework, which can account for time of day, transport mode and destination choices by individuals, and level of traffic congestion among other factors. A case‐study application to a specific (potential) incident in a real‐world network indicates that the proposed method is feasible and demonstrates its power in identifying not just total impacts but the distribution of those impacts across a region or community. While current approaches to urban road network planning and management tend to be reactive—finding cures for problems as they arise or addressing locations of recurrent congestion or bad incident record—the vulnerability analysis method described in the paper should lend itself to a proactive approach that can anticipate structural weaknesses and vulnerabilities and help to avoid or at least temper potential adverse effects, rather than to react to them afterwards.     

Travel and Activity Choices for Transit Travelers at Terminals with Dynamic Information Provision

This study explores the impacts of providing dynamic information on travelers' behavior and the induced demand for terminal‐surrounding activities. A nested logit model was used to identify the important factors, and a questionnaire was designed to explore the preference of travelers regarding activities and travel choices. Adopting dynamic information was found to have a significant influence on travel decisions. The results show that an increased duration of activity participation may accompany an alteration of departure time or mode choice. The results also show that the use of dynamic information for travelers is related to induced activity participation and travelers' socioeconomic characteristics. The content of the dynamic information should be designed in accordance with the preference of travelers to encourage travelers participating in terminal‐surrounding activities.     

Accessibility,Diversity, Environmental Quality and the Dynamics of Intra‐Urban Population and Employment Location

This paper investigates intra‐urban population and employment shifts over 1980–2000, using the Cincinnati Metropolitan Area as a case study. Population and employment are disaggregated by ethnicity (White, Black, Others) and industry (10 sectors) to better capture different location behaviors. Inter‐industry relationships are considered when constructing accessibility variables. Additional diversity, locational and socio‐economic variables are included. A location‐specific index of air quality is also considered, as a proxy for environmental quality. A structural equation model is specified to account for the dynamic interactions between populations, activities, and air quality. The results reveal strong interactions between ethnic groups, confirm the existence of agglomeration effects, and suggest that diversity has positive effects on both firms and households in both periods (1980–1990 and 1990–2000). For firms, better access to their potential customers and employees is more important than better access to their input–output sectors. Better air quality attracts population, which in turn worsens it. The results reveal changing dynamics, from 1980–1990 to 1990–2000, for different population and activity groups, and suggest that overall, firm location behaviors are more stable than household behaviors.     

Can transfer of development rights programs save farmland in metropolitan counties?

Transfer development rights (TDR) programs have been gaining popularity as a tool for farmland preservation, as they compensate landowners at minimal public cost. This study shows that despite their wide adoption, TDR programs do not save much farmland on the urban fringe. We use Department of Agriculture data and apply two quasi‐experimental methods, synthetic control, and difference‐in‐difference, to evaluate the effect of TDR programs on farm retention for three fringe metropolitan counties in the state of Maryland. We also compare land use patterns before and after TDR implementation in these counties. The result shows limited effects of TDR programs on farm preservation, even in Montgomery County, one of the national models for TDR programs. TDR programs do contribute to low and medium density residential development. This cautions observation planners about their enthusiasm toward TDR programs and highlights the difficulty of preserving farmland on the fringe of metropolitan regions. We compare the features of the studied TDR programs, and highlight those that account for the programs’ relative success/failure. Based on these analyses, we make recommendations to planners to help improve TDR effectiveness.     

Unemployed Job Seeker Attitudes towards Potential Travel‐to‐Work Times

The effectiveness of intra‐regional job search is influenced by how far people are willing to travel to new employment. While much has been written on the commuting patterns of those in work, relatively little research has been carried out on how far unemployed job seekers are prepared to commute. This paper presents and tests a model of factors influencing the maximum time unemployed job seekers would be willing to travel to a potential new job. Significant effects are found for a range of personal and demographic characteristics, including gender, years of education, type of job, and location. The evidence suggests support for the spatial mismatch hypothesis and shows differing accessibility to employment opportunities for certain types of unemployed people. The findings also suggest that models of the trade‐off between leisure and work time should fully include travel‐to‐work time as part of this trade‐off.     

Effects of Land‐Related Policies on Land Development during a Real Estate Boom and a Recession

Our research evaluates and compares the effects of three land‐related policies on land development in a sprawling metropolitan area during a real estate boom and a recession. Our findings suggest that during a real estate boom 1) the urban growth boundary (UGB) serves its purpose of attracting urban development inside the given boundary during a boom while its effectiveness diminishes with increased development pressure from lower‐valued land outside of the UGB during a recession period, 2) the agricultural zone works well for restraining new development during a boom period while agriculture zoned parcels are more likely developed during a recession period, and 3) an increase in the land‐value tax bill increases the incentive for development during a recession period while higher tax bills do not affect development during a boom period. In anticipation of a re‐emergence of urban sprawl with the recovery of the real estate market, our findings imply that land planners and others concerned with sprawling development should pay more attention to development in sprawl‐prone areas during recession periods.     

A micro‐level data analysis of household energy demand in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa,Pakistan: An application of linear approximate almost ideal demand system

This study examines energy choice, consumption pattern and household energy expenditure in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK) using the Linear Approximate Almost Ideal Demand System (LA‐AIDS). The study used micro‐level data to estimate the price and expenditure elasticities by employing (SUR) methodology. Empirical findings showed that energy choice, consumption patterns, and demand are different for urban‐rural households in the province. Each household living in KPK spent 1838.81 Rupees (9.92%) on energy purchases out of its total average monthly expenditure of Rs. 18,542.79. Compared to urban households, households living in rural areas spend more on energy consumption in a proportionate manner. The expenditure elasticities estimated for all energy sources are positive and statistically significant. Furthermore, the result showed that expenditure elasticities estimated for urban and rural households are less than one, suggesting that all the sources of energy are necessities. Natural gas and electricity are the main energy sources for urban households, while firewood and electricity are key energy sources for rural households in the province. The study suggested that rural households need to switch from conventional energy sources to modern and renewable energy sources, which would reduce the cost of energy use.     

Are We Moving Back to the City? Examining Residential Mobility in the Washington,DC Metropolitan Area

This research assesses the extent to which there is evidence of population re‐centralization or back to the city moves by tracking the historical trend of household and income mobility in the Washington, DC metropolitan area. County‐to‐county migration data and four migration efficiency measures are used to investigate net flows of households and income in the region. The results show a nascent tendency of back to the city movement; however, the redistribution of households and income in the metropolitan area is more complex. While the region's core may be starting to gain households and income, there are still significant flows into the region's most distant suburbs. The results of this research have implications for transportation, housing, and economic development policy making in Washington, DC and other regions. The study also offers a unique example of how to study household and income redistribution within U.S. metropolitan areas.     

Urban–Rural Differences in Internet Usage,e‐Commerce,and e‐Banking: Evidence from Italy

ABSTRACT By reducing the cost of performing isolated economic activities in remote areas, information technology might serve as a substitute for urban agglomeration. The paper assesses this hypothesis using data on Italian households' usage of the Internet, e‐commerce, and e‐banking. The results do not support the argument that the Internet reduces the role of distance. Internet usage is much more frequent among urban consumers than among their non‐urban counterparts. The use of e‐commerce is basically unaffected by the size of the city where the household lives. Geographically remote consumers are discouraged from purchasing goods by the fact that they cannot inspect them beforehand. Leisure activities and cultural items (i.e., books, CDs, and tickets for museums and theaters) are the only goods and services for which e‐commerce is used more in isolated areas. Finally, e‐banking bears no relationship to city size. In choosing a bank, non‐urban customers give more importance to personal acquaintance than do urban clients, partly because bank account holders in remote areas are more likely to have taken out a loan from their bank.     

Overview: Restructuring Chinese space in the new millennium

This collection is concerned with understanding the nature of China’s spatial development during the transition to a socialist market economy. It does so primarily by questioning the applicability of the ‘desakota’ model and extended metropolitan region (EMR) concept to the contemporary Chinese space economy. Yu Zhu’s contribution extends the ‘desakota’ model by applying it to rural areas without the attraction of large cities. Wing‐Shing Tang and Him Chung’s contribution discusses illegal land use and construction to highlight the rural‐urban transition’s negative and disintegrative aspects glossed over by the ‘desakota’ model, which stem from the extension of urban administration to former rural areas and the redistributive effects of land use reform. Andrew Marton sees the original ‘desakota’ model being rejuvenated by introducing the notion of rural agglomeration, a clearer recognition of local administrative structures and an appreciation that development issues now take place within a global‐local framework. George Lin explores the lingering effects of rural origins on Chinese identity and how this affects subsequent social and commercial groups within the Chinese diaspora. Peter Rimmer and Claude Comtois show how changes in China’s transport and telecommunications industry underlie, to a significant degree, the restructuring of China’s space economy and the country’s links to the rest of the world. Overall the contributions highlight that a new consensus will be required for any revised model of the Chinese space economy if this is to provide guidance for planners engaged in restructuring Chinese space in the new millennium.     

Did incentives help municipalities recover from the Great Recession? Evidence from Midwestern cities

This study assesses the impacts of local business incentives in the largest urban areas of Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin, three Midwestern states that share similar histories and settings. We assembled a unique dataset combining information on two types of incentives, tax increment financing districts and tax abatements, together with socio‐economic, geographic, fiscal, and spatial competitive characteristics for all of the municipalities in six metropolitan areas. The outcome measures include employment growth, establishment formation, and business relocation. The analysis extends knowledge of the effects of economic development incentives in two ways. First, we improve upon previous research by incorporating key factors in municipal decisions to offer incentives. Second, we add to limited empirical evidence concerning local incentives following the Great Recession. Variation in the use of incentives reflects not only local decision‐making but also differing fiscal capacities and situations of adaptation to adverse economic conditions, with some governments pulling back on incentives and others initiating new approaches to retain or lure businesses.     

The Impact of Metropolitan Structure on Commute Behavior in the Netherlands: A Multilevel Approach

ABSTRACT This paper documents the investigation of the impact of metropolitan structure on the commute behavior of urban residents in the Netherlands. Not only has the impact of monocentrism versus polycentrism been analyzed, but the influence of metropolitan density and size has also been considered, together with the ratio of employment to population and the growth of the population and employment. Furthermore, data are used at a variety of levels of analysis ranging from the individual worker to the metropolitan region rather than being drawn from aggregate level statistics alone. Multilevel regression modeling is applied to take account of the interdependencies among these levels of aggregation. With regard to mode choice, the results indicate that the probability of driving an auto to work is lower in employment‐rich metropolitan regions, and rises as the number of jobs per resident has grown strongly. Furthermore, women in most polycentric regions are less likely to commute as an auto driver. All else being equal, commute distances and times for auto drivers are longer in most polycentric regions than in monocentric urban areas. In addition, commute time as an auto driver rises with metropolitan size, whereas commute distance depends on employment density and the growth of the number of jobs per resident. The investigation shows that metropolitan structure, although significantly influencing commute patterns, explains only a small part of the variation of individuals’ commute behavior.     

New Insights into Senior Travel Behavior: The Canadian Experience

Societies in many developed nations around the world are aging. Over the past decade, a growing body of research has emerged internationally in an effort to anticipate and prepare for the transport challenges posed by this unprecedented demographic change. This paper contributes to this line of research by offering new insights into senior travel behavior focusing on the recent Canadian experience. Using weekday data from the 1992 and 2005 General Social Surveys on time use, changes in the number of trips, the duration of trips, trip mode, and trip timing are evaluated for urban seniors. In contrast to the experiences of many other developed nations, analysis of the first three indicators of behavioral change refutes the notion that “automobility” has increased in Canada over the 13‐year period. While this finding is encouraging, it is tempered by the fact that Canadian seniors who choose to travel by car are doing so increasingly during the morning and evening peak periods. The results from a peak versus non‐peak departure‐time model that pools data from both years offer important insights into factors driving this change. For instance, the results suggest that the propensity to start a trip during rush hour has increased over time for non‐work trip purposes.