Combinations of trees and crops in the taungya method as applied in Thailand

In Thailand the taungya reforestation method has been practiced primarily in order to rehabilitate wasteland, particularly under the Forest Village Programme. While various combinations of trees and crops are found in the taungya method on a minor scale, the major combinations are teak with upland rice in the north, fast-growing trees with cassava in the northeast, fast-growing trees with maize in the west, and para-rubber or fast-growing trees with fruit trees in the south. These combinations relate to the differences in climatic conditions, mainly the duration of the rainy season.     

Suitability of the taungya system at North Kilimanjaro Forest Plantation,Tanzania

The taungya is a system whereby villagers and sometimes forest plantation workers are given the right to cultivate agricultural crops during the early stages of forest plantation establishment. Cultivation is often allowed to continue until trees shade crops due to canopy closure. This study aimed at analyzing the taungya system at the North Kilimanjaro Forest Plantation in Tanzania but was limited to an examination of costs and revenues resulting from the practice and also the impact the system has on tree survival and food crop yields. Results show that during the early stages of forest plantation establishment, intercropping of young trees with food crops is beneficial in terms of tree survival, food crop production, financial income to the peasant farmers and reduction of forest plantation establishment costs. Therefore the system is suitable and should be sustained.     

Cost minimization through the use of taungya system in pulpwood plantation establishment

The costs and benefits of the use of three labour alternatives: direct permanent, direct casual and taungya labour in Gmelina arborea pulpwood plantation establishment in Nigeria were investigated. Results show that cost per hectare is lowest with taungya labour and highest with permanent labour with savings in cost of as much as 30% and 47% by taungya labour over casual and permanent labour respectively. The net present value per hectare of investment is highest when taungya labour is used and lowest and negative with permanent labour. Also, the internal rate of return of investment is highest with taungya labour and lowest with permanent labour. The net present values and internal rates of return for Gmelina plantations calculated for the three pulp and paper mills in Nigeria show the same trend in favour of taungya labour.     

Rural livelihood benefits from participation in the taungya agroforestry system in Ondo State of Nigeria

This study examines the strategies and benefits of the taungya farming system to both the government and the rural economy in Nigeria. An interview survey was conducted in which data were collected from 115 randomly selected farmers in five villages in the Oluwa forest reserve, Ondo State, Nigeria. The study examines the extent of participation of rural dwellers in plantation development through taungya farming and the degree of success of this system as an afforestation method. The farmers were predominantly illiterate, within the age bracket of 35–54 years and with small farm holdings. Twenty nine percent relied totally on food from the forest reserve for their livelihood, while 71% also had farm holdings in free areas. Land within the reserve is allocated to farmers free of charge but compensation is paid to landlords on land from free areas. A statistically significant difference was detected in income from the two sources of farmland for the households and but not in the size of land allocated under taungya and free areas. About 184 farmers are involved in taungya annually, and 410 ha of Tectonia grandis has been established for the government of Ondo State.     

Tree gardening and taungya on Java: examples of agroforestry techniques in the humid tropics

Agroforestry is a general concept for a land management system combining trees and agricultural crops. For application, various specific techniques can be chosen. Each of these techniques is adjusted to a specific set of environmental as well as socio-economic factors. Agroforestry cultivators or managers belonging to varying social strata and institutional groupings may practice different forms of agroforestry, even within the same general region. This is demonstrated on the basis of two contrasting types of agroforestry which are found on the Indonesian island of Java. Tree gardening or the cultivation of a wide variety of crops in a multiple-storeyed agroforestry system is an indegenous practice on private lands, while taungya or the intercropping of young tree plantations with staple crops is practiced on state forest lands. Both systems are described as to their management characteristics, past development as well as possibilities and constraints for further development. These two practices are then compared as to various attributes, like producer group, production purpose, area of cultivation, land ownership situation, structural organization of crop combinations, possibilities for improved cultivation techniques, and suitability for application in rural development for specific target groups.This paper is a slightly revised version of a contribution to a lecture series on agro-forestry organized by the Departments of Forestry, Wageningen University.     

Development of tree hollows in pedunculate oak (Quercus robur)

Many invertebrates, birds and mammals are dependent on hollow trees. For landscape planning that aims at persistence of species inhabiting hollow trees it is crucial to understand the development of such trees. In this study we constructed an individual-based simulation model to predict diameter distribution and formation of hollows in oak tree populations. Based on tree ring data from individual trees, we estimated the ages when hollow formation commences for pedunculate oak (Quercus robur) in southeast Sweden. At ages of about 200–300 years, 50% of the trees had hollows. Among trees <100 years old, less than 1% had hollows, while all >400-year-old trees had hollows. Hollows formed at earlier ages in fast-growing trees than in slow-growing trees, which may be because hollows are formed when big branches shed, and branches are thicker on fast-growing trees in comparison to slow-growing trees of the same age. The simulation model was evaluated by predicting the frequency of presence of hollows in relation to tree size in seven oak stands in the study area. The evaluation suggested that future studies should focus on tree mortality at different conditions. Tree ring methods on individual trees are useful in studies on development of hollow trees as they allow analysis of the variability in time for hollow formation among trees.     

木荷优树生长与叶果性状分析

从木荷(Schima superba)优树树龄结构、选优林分起源和表型性状进行分析.结果表明,由于人为破坏,木荷大龄资源较少,仅有40%的优树处于最佳采种年龄;选优林分起源相对合理,天然林选出的优树株数占比达52.1%,次生林和人工林选出的优树株数分别占24.9%、22.9%;树高、胸径生长性状分析认为五株优势木法选出的木荷优树是合理、有效的,通过比较,在现有资源中选出最优的种质材料,作为遗传改良的基础材料,本批优树胸径与5株优势木平均胸径差异幅度大于20%以上的优树有146株,占比达69.52%;优树胸径年均生长量达速生指标的有173株,占86.43%,而树高生长量达速生指标的优树有175株,占68.05%;从形质性状分析结果显示,优良树干尖削度,即高径比在50以上的优树有114株,占比达61.63%;在冠幅方面,优良冠幅的优树,即冠幅小于等于6 m的有128株,占总株数的53.56%.木荷优树的叶果性状在个体及种源间均呈极显著差异(P<0.01),聚类分析显示木荷优树叶果有4种类型.在以后深入研究中,应对生长量大、尖削度小且为窄冠型优树的研究与利用加以重视.     

汉寿县行道树研究

行道树是城市绿地系统的骨架和网络,作为城市森林系统具有连续性的主要构成因素,能够直观反映城市风貌。就汉寿县行道树现状,总结出树种单一、季相变化树种使用过少,对速生树种与慢生树种相结合的原则应用力度不够,人为破坏严重等方面的问题,并提出了相应意见和建议,为以后在行道树方面作研究参考。     

绿竹混农模式的初步研究

研究表明，三种绿竹－农作物混农模式对绿竹林内湿、温度有显著影响，对绿竹的出笋个数有明显的促进作用；并显著地提高了绿竹的高生长。同时绿竹混农模式增加了经济效益，充分达到以短养长的目的，其中以绿竹－黄豆或花生的混农模式效果为佳。     

Exploring the Socio-Economic Situation of Plantation Villagers: A Case Study in Myanmar Bago Yoma

Since the early 1980s, Myanmar Forest Department has been recruiting shifting cultivators, establishing plantation villages and applying the taungya method in establishing teak plantations. From the beginning, there has been an argument about whether the program is creating ‘forest protective groups’ or ‘forest destructive groups’. A key determinant to that question from the research viewpoint is the socio-economic situation; knowing the present situation of the plantation villagers can help to understand their forest management practices. Interview surveys were carried out in three villages in Bago Yoma, the main region of the special teak plantation program, to examine the current economic benefits to plantation villagers. Questions were designed mainly to explore the incentives for people participation and the socio-economic situations of the plantation villagers. Principal component analysis was used to group landholder types. It was found that local people are willing to participate in the initial establishment of plantations. However, all the incentives relating to plantation projects are temporary, with no long-term consideration for taungya farmers, which jeopardizes the plan to create forest protective groups. It is concluded that the time has come for the Myanmar Forest Department to change its main aim of earning foreign exchange from establishment of teak plantations through the taungya method to redressing deforestation through people participation based on rural socio-economic development.

白银地区优良林草品种选择与林草复合经营技术试验

对优良林草品种的选择和林草复合经营技术试验结果表明 :引进的速生杨、速生柳各无性系间的扦插繁育和植苗造林成活率均不存在显著性差异 ;速生杨、柳苗期生长量与对照 (新疆杨、旱柳 )相比差异显著 ,90 %以上可当年育成一级壮苗 ,造林后速生杨、柳幼树初期生长量显著快于对照 ;引进的美国紫花苜蓿品种在林草复合经营中的品质和产量与对照相比有明显优势 ;林草间作的经济效益远远高于普通农作物种植 ,林草复合系统中草的收益完全可以保证林木成材前幼林的抚育费用 ,并可实现盈利 90 0～ 15 0 0元 /hm2 。     

Evolution of agroforestry in the Xishuangbanna region of tropical China

A review of agroforestry practices in one lowland and one highland community of Xishuangbanna [Yunnan, P.R. China] has been carried out. Multilayer homegardens and taungya for fuelwood in the lowlands, tea shaded by natural forest and shellac production in a swidden farming system in the highlands are described. The extention of these agroforestry systems in Xishuangbanna is analyzed.Farming systems are facing problems related to shifting cultivation and to a rapid development of rubber which induce a negative evolution of these agroforestry systems.New agroforestry patterns based on Chinese research work, with rubber trees or with shade medicinal plants, are in extension in villages and in state farms.

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Résumé Un inventaire des systèmes agroforestiers du Xishuangbanna [Yunnan, R.P. Chine] a été réalisé: jardins à plusieurs étages et production de bois feu par système de taungya dans un village de plaine, thé à l'ombre de forêt naturelle et production de gomme-lacque dans un système d'agriculture sur brûlis dans un village de montagne.Les systèmes de production sont confrontés aux problèmes liés à l'agriculture sur brûlis, et au développement de l'hévéa. Il en résulte des évolutions négatives de ces practiques agroforestières.De nouveaux modèles agroforestiers, à base d'hévéa ou de plantes médicinales d'ombre, se développent dans les villages et dans les fermes d'état á la suite des travaux de la recherche chinoise.

     

稠李、斑叶稠李生长特性研究

采用临时标准地法,对20块标准地的40株平均木和优势木进行了树干解析,采用IBMPC系列程序集对所得数据进行计算,以分析稠李、斑叶稠李树高、胸径和材积的生长规律。结果表明:稠李、斑叶稠李都属早期速生树种,稠李高生长在12年时已达高峰,胸径生长在32年时已趋最高,材积生长在40年左右时达到最佳。斑叶稠李高生长在18年达到高峰,胸径生长在32年趋于最高,材积生长在45年左右达到最佳水准。     

日本落叶松无性系引种试验林研究初报

为选择冀北山地培育速生丰产林种质资源,从辽宁宽甸县引进日本落叶松无性系4个品系在茅荆坝林场栽植试验林。结果表明,生长量明显高于乡土树种-华北落叶松,10 a生林木进入速生期,是对比树种的1.5倍以上,适应当地自然环境条件。     

福建珍贵阔叶用材树种的筛选研究

在对福建 1 0种珍贵阔叶树种的速生丰产特性、经济性状和适应性调查基础上 ,运用多目标决策原理 ,进行福建珍贵阔叶用材树种的筛选研究。结果表明 :在 1 0种珍贵阔叶树种中 ,檫树的速生丰产指标得分最高 ,闽楠的经济性状指标得分最高 ,福建青冈、刺栲、青钩栲的适应性指标最好 ;1 0个阔叶树种可分为 3个等级 ,其中一级的刺栲、闽楠为福建适宜的阔叶造林树种 ;二级的檫树、青钩栲、沉水樟、福建青冈为福建次适宜的阔叶造林树种。     

海南岛尖峰岭热带天然林主要树种生长过程的探讨

尖峰岭热带天然林,树种繁杂,林木生长存在较大的差异。根据65株不同树种的解析木,按树高和胸径的年生长量划分为三种类型,即年平均生长量大于0.5(m或 cm)者为速生型,0.2—0.5者为中生型,小于0.2为慢生型,其中83.1％属于中生型,对各类型分别调制了生长过程的回归估测模型。材积生长量在三个类型中仍继续增长,数量成熟龄尚难确定。从缩短经营周期出发,可考虑采用工艺成熟龄作为择伐的回归年。据回归估测,速生型40年,中生型140年,慢生型180年,胸径可达32cm,树高23—24m,平均单株材积达0.9m~3以上,符合锯材原木标准,可考虑作为择伐回归年的依据。     

干旱沙地柳树品种对比试验

柳树是吉林省西部地区主要造林树种之一。为了筛选出适宜在干旱地上栽培的柳树品种,我们进行了干旱沙地柳树品种对比试验。经过10年的生长观测,垂爆109柳在干旱沙地上生长良好,且有较强的速生性,适宜在我省古部地区的干旱沙地上栽培推广。     

Transgenic woody plants for biofuel

Transgenic trees as a new source for biofuel have brought a great interest in tree biotechnology. Genetically modifying forest trees for ethanol production have advantages in technical challenges, costs, environmental concerns, and financial problems over some of crops. Genetic engineering of forest trees can be used to reduce the level of lignin, to produce the fast-growing trees, to develop trees with higher cellulose, and to allow the trees to be grown more widely. Trees can establish themselves in the field with less care of farmers, compared to most of crops. Transgenic crops as a new source for biofuel have been recently reviewed in several reviews. Here, we overview transgenic woody plants as a new source for biofuel including genetically modified woody plants and environment; main focus of woody plants genetic modifications; solar to chemical energy transfer; cellulose biosynthesis; lignin biosynthesis; and cellulosic ethanol as biofuel.     

半干旱地区杨树新品种选育初报

文章通过青杨派的种间杂交,在半干旱地区的杨树新品种选育中,在4龄树时初选出金科5号优良无性系。金科5号在耐干旱、耐盐碱、速生等方面表现优良。