Chemical amelioration of surface crusting to reduce runoff and erosion on highly weathered soils

Because of the very low soil solution ionic strengths in highly weathered soils, clay particles can be readily dispersed under the impact of raindrops. The clay fraction of many soils is dispersible under the combined effects of mechanical disturbance and low electrolyte concentration. This clay dispersion results in fine particle segregation at the soil surface, with clay particles moving into and blocking soil pores resulting in the formation of a highly impervious crust which reduces infiltration. Because the clay is dispersed, the particles usually orient themselves in a laminar fashion as they settle. As a result, runoff is substantially increased, giving rise to soil erosion. The crusts formed in this manner often have very high strengths which prevent or substantially reduce crop emergence. The formation of such crusts can be prevented by the application of relatively low rates of by-product gypsum such as phosphogypsum on the soil surface which produces sufficient electrolyte in solution during raindrop impact to maintain the clay particles in a flocculated condition. The results of a number of experiments in which different soils were treated with phosphogypsum are discussed to illustrate the effects of electrolyte concentration, level of sodium and other factors on the formation of surface crusts and the consequent runoff and erosion. As a result of the application of phosphogypsum to the soil surface, a laminar orientation of clay particles at the surface is prevented, which allows a much greater proportion of the rainfall to enter the soil. Any crusts formed are thus much weaker and do not reduce seedling emergence. This type of crust formation can also be prevented by reducing raindrop impact through the use of mulches. This phenomenon occurs on many soils not normally considered to suffer from chemically-induced physical problems, which points to the importance of considering chemical as well as physical processes in the evaluation of potential runoff and erosion.     

利用盘式吸渗仪确定土壤水力学参数研究进展

各种农业措施显著影响土壤的物理性质,特别是土壤水力学参数。随着计算机模型广泛用于土壤物质迁移的预测预报,准确确定土壤水力学参数成为一项重要的研究任务。盘式吸渗仪作为一种简便实用的仪器正被广泛用于田间土壤水力学参数的测定。国内外学者研究了稳态、瞬态和反推等方法,利用盘式吸渗仪来确定土壤近饱和导水率、吸渗率和水分特征曲线。同时该仪器可以用于田间测定土壤孔隙分布状况,以及两区模型中的参数。笔者对国内外有关盘式吸渗仪研究从相关理论和应用方面进展进行了综述,并对田间测定操作中注意的问题进行评述,指导田间试验以获得准确的测定数据。盘式吸渗仪在田间测定土壤孔隙,特别是大孔隙流方面有独特的优点,但是其并未在中国不同质地土壤上得以广泛应用。     

免耕的固碳效应研究进展

免耕是一种保护性耕作,可显著地增强土壤的固碳能力。土壤有机碳的获得或者损失取决于生物或有机质剩余的碳增加量与作物收割、微生物化或者分解过程中的碳丢失量这二者的比率。农田耕地的废除恰好可以使作物残茬分解速率降低、土壤有机碳增加。而与土壤耕地有关的几个因素加速了残茬的分解。秸秆还田的手段通过微生物分解的方式提高了对损失碳的利用。免耕提高了农业可持续性能力和抵消人为因素的温室气体排放。总CO2释放量的50%发生在夏季。研究中CO2平均年释放数据表明NT释放量低于常规耕种系统,表层碳积累量明显高于常规耕种系统。除了提高土壤的固碳能力以外,免耕对土壤质量参数产生好的影响,改善了土壤结构,提高了土壤渗透率,减少了流失和侵蚀,这些提高很大程度上是土壤表层有机质积累的结果。文中指出,中国应加土壤固碳能力的研究,并适度的推广免耕政策。     

土壤入渗特性影响因素研究综述

土壤入渗特性是评价土壤水源涵养作用和抗侵蚀能力的重要指标,也是模拟土壤侵蚀过程的基本输入变量,受制于许多外在和内在因素的影响。综述了影响土壤入渗特性的主要因素,这些因素主要有土壤理化性质、下垫面性质、降雨强度、水质及水温等。并提出了今后应该加强研究的内容。     

Cropping system effects of maize on infiltration,runoff and erosion on loess soils in South-Limbourg (The Netherlands): A comparison of two rainfall events

Two natural rainfall events are compared to evaluate the effects of three cropping systems of silage maize on soil moisture content, infiltration, runoff and erosion. Both rainfall events took place in early summer. One was a low intensity event with 27.6 mm of rain in 9 hours, and the other a high intensity event with 33.4 mm in 42 minutes. Cropping systems were:

• 1.(I) a spring tilled system (conventional),
• 2.(II) an autumn and spring tilled system with summer barley as spring cover crop, and
• 3.(III) an autumn tilled system with winter rye as winter cover crop and direct drilling of silage maize.

During the low intensity event, soil moisture content of the top 5 cm rose to field capacity on all three cropping systems. No runoff was generated. During the high intensity event, soil moisture content rose to field capacity on the two spring tilled cropping systems but was only slightly raised in the direct drill system, in spite of 17.7 mm of infiltrated rain. Runoff coefficients of the high intensity event were 41.7% (conventional system), 14.9% (autumn and spring tilled system) and 47.0% (direct drill system). The direct drill system showed a severely slaked soil surface in early summer, caused by winter rain.The response to rainfall of soil moisture content is ascribed to:

• 1.(I) a predominance of matrix infiltration on all cropping systems during the low intensity event and on the spring tilled systems during the high intensity event, and
• 2.(II) a predominance of infiltration via continuous macropores, open to the surface (of biologic origin), by-passing the soil matrix, on the direct drill system during the high intensity event.

The presence of continuous, vertical macropores on the direct drill system explains its surprisingly high infiltration capacity, considering its strongly slaked appearance. The smooth soil surface of the direct drill cropping system may have delayed infiltration during the flooded stage of the high intensity event by not providing vent points for the escape of soil air. Soil loss from the direct drill system during the high intensity event was only 15.6% of that from the conventional system. This is ascribed to low detachment rates of soil material by drop impact and/or overland flow, due to the presence of winter rye remains and, especially, the relatively high soil surface shear strength of the direct drill cropping system in early summer.     

Subsoiling and deep fertilizing with new technique as a measure of soil conservation in ag agriculture,viniculture and forestry

Compacted soils have low infiltration capacity. As a consequence, the danger of soil erosion by surface-runoff is high. Subsoiling may be an effective countermeasure. Deficiencies of previously existing subsoiling techniques (lift-loosening) gave reason to develop a new technique of soil melioration. Some effects of this new multiple purpose break-off subsoiling on soil physical properties and yields, advantages and possible areas of use are described.     

Effects of reduced tillage on soil surface properties affecting wind erosion in semiarid fallow lands of Central Aragón

In Central Aragón (NE Spain), where strong and dry winds are frequent all year round, fallow lands are susceptible to wind erosion due to insufficient crop residues on the surface and loose, finely divided soils by multiple tillage operations. Effects of conventional tillage (CT — mouldboard ploughing followed by a compacting roller) and reduced tillage (RT — chisel ploughing) on soil surface properties affecting wind erosion were studied during three experimental campaigns in a dryland field of Central Aragón. RT provided higher soil protection than CT through a lower wind erodible fraction of soil surface (on average, 10% less) and a significantly higher percentage of soil cover with crop residues and clods (30% higher). Random roughness was also higher after RT than after CT (15 vs. 4%). These results indicate that RT can be an effective soil management practice for wind erosion prevention during the fallow period in semiarid Aragón. The study shows, likewise, that significant changes in soil aggregate size distribution associated with wind erosion processes may occur in short periods of time. Thus, temporal variability of soil surface properties, including crust and clods stability, needs to be considered in wind erosion research in agricultural soils.     

不同下垫面条件下土壤养分流失研究概况

中国的土壤侵蚀十分严重,而随着土壤侵蚀的发生发展将导致土壤养分流失、土壤贫瘠、土地生产力降低等多种问题。影响土壤侵蚀和土壤养分流失的主要因素包括降雨、下垫面条件和人为因素。通过总结多年来对不同下垫面条件下土壤养分流失情况的研究结果,分析下垫面条件中地表植被、坡度、坡长、土壤含水量、土壤颗粒等因素对土壤养分流失的影响,总结目前正在试验或用于实践的各种用于控制或者减少土壤养分流失状况的措施,以期对下一步的研究工作提供参考。     

Effect of surface treatments on soil crusting and infiltration

The effects of phosphogypsum and plant residue mulches on soil crusting and infiltration were studied on a Rhodic Paleustalf in Northern Natal, South Africa. Under field conditions infiltration rates were considerably higher than those obtained with a laboratory type rainfall simulator. Both ameliorants were effective in countering crust formation. Their effect continued over a growing season (4–5 months). Scanning electronmicrographs showed that under moist conditions microbial hyphae and residues were prominent in the surface crust. Extractable soil P built up to high levels in the phosphogypsum treated plots.     

Polysaccharide and salt effects on infiltration and soil erosion. A rainfall simulation study

Seals forming at the soil surface during rainstorms reduce water penetration and increase runoff in many arid and semi-arid regions. The effect of surface application of an anionic polysaccharide (designated F-Ac), synthesized by the filamentous cyanobacterium Anabaenopsis circularis PCC 6720, on infiltration rate (IR), runoff and erosion of three soils during simulated rainstorms, was studied. The interaction between F-Ac and electrolyte concentration at the soil surface was studied by using distilled water (DW) or tap water (TW) or by spreading phosphogypsum (PG) on the soil surface. F-Ac added at the rate of 3.4 kg ha⁻¹ together with PG at the rate of 5 t ha⁻¹ was the most efficient treatment in improving infiltration and reducing runoff and erosion. This treatment reduced runoff, from the three soils studied, from 65–80% in the control to 14–24%. Soil loss was reduced from 3.6–4.5 Mg ha⁻¹ in the control to 0.5–1.3 Mg ha⁻¹ in the treated soils. DW treatment, singly and in combination with F-Ac, was quite inefficient in preventing seal formation and in reducing runoff and soil loss. Adding F-Ac with TW maintained final IR and runoff levels intermediate between those of F-Ac with PG and those of F-Ac with DW. Electrolytes in the soil surface which flocculated soil clay, enhanced the beneficial effect of F-Ac on aggregate stability and thus greatly reduced water and soil losses. The efficacy of F-Ac as a stabilizing agent (i.e., soil conditioner) wore out during three consecutive storms of 60 mm each.     

The Effect of Different Soybean Tillage Systems on Infiltrability and Erosion Susceptibility of an Oxisol in Paraná, Brazil

Measurements of infiltrability were carried out during the soybean vegetation period in three different tillage systems on an Oxisol, with the aim of estimating relative erosion susceptibility. The tillage systems studied were conventional tillage (disc plow), minimum tillage (chisel plow) and no-tillage. Infiltration was determined as the difference between rainfall applied with a portable rainfall simulator and runoff collected from mini-plots.
During all growth stages of the soybeans, infiltrability under no-tillage was higher than under conventional tillage. Minimum tillage took an intermediate position. Lowest overall infiltrability and consequently, highest relative erosion susceptibility was observed in the early growth stage after planting, in a wet year, when the degree of soil cover was also lowest. Infiltrability was mainly affected by degree of surface seal development as a result of natural rainfall energy the soil surface had received prior to measurements, as well as degree of soil cover. Highly significant correlations were found between the calculated sum of erosivity indices one month before measurement and the total infiltration. Differences in bulk density and macroporosity had hardly any effect on infiltrability.
The better performance of no-tillage in controlling erosion observed in Brazil can thus be explained by the higher degree of soil cover in comparison to the other tillage systems studied.     

基于灰色关联法土壤水分垂直入渗影响因素研究

土壤水分入渗过程中主要受压力水头、土壤初始含水率、土壤容重、颗粒级配影响。基于一维垂直土柱积水入渗试验研究这些因素对入渗能力影响的主次关系,利用Green-Ampt与Philip入渗模型得到相应土壤入渗特性参数,采用灰色关联分析法研究四个因素对累积入渗量、饱和导水率、稳定入渗率、湿润锋面吸力、吸渗率的影响程度。结果表明,压力水头、土壤初始含水率、土壤容重、颗粒级配对累积入渗量、入渗率及Green-Ampt与Philip模型中物理参数有显著影响,各处理中饱和导水率与稳定入渗率间误差较小,吸渗率拟合值与利用湿润锋面吸力所得吸渗率计算值间相似程度较高,决定系数R2大于0.85;灰色关联分析结果表明,颗粒级配关联度均值r4最高为0.946 3,土壤容重、初始含水率其次,压力水头影响程度最小（r1=0.562 9）。总而言之,颗粒级配对土壤入渗特性影响起主导作用,该研究成果可为农业灌溉及水资源管理提供理论支撑。     

Relationship Between Watershed Landscape Pattern Change and Runoff-Sediment in Wind-Water Erosion Crisscross Region

This paper selected the typical wind-water erosion crisscross region Xiliugou watershed for research to reveal the impact of the landscape pattern change of the underlying surface in wind-water erosion crisscross region where soil erosion is most serious on rainfall and runoff as well as erosion and sediment.Based on the Landsat TM image data and measured data of runoff-sediment in that watershed,the paper analyzed the characteristics of watershed landscape pattern change and runoff-sediment and explored the relationship between landscape index and runoff-sediment yield by means of GIS and Fragstats.The results were included as follows.(1)Grassland was the dominant landscape.In terms of the number of patches and area change rate,from 1985 to 2010,cultivated land,forest land and construction land were most stable,followed by unused land.Unused land,grassland and cultivated land experienced the most dramatic conversion and maximally affected by human activities.(2)The inter-annual difference between annual runoff and annual sediment load was significant.Compared with the annual sediment load,the trend of decreasing runoff was more obvious.The correlation coefficient of runoff-sediment was 0.67,representing a significant correlation.(3)There was a significant correlation between the landscape index and runoff-sediment.The runoff was negatively correlated with the largest patch index,patch cohesion index,aggregation index and contagion index,but positively correlated with landscape morphology index and landscape division index.And the sediment was negatively correlated with the contagion index,aggregation index and plaque cohesion index,but positively correlated with other landscape indexes.The results indicate that with the increase of the largest patch index,patch cohesion index and aggregation index,the rainfall infiltration capacity increase obviously and the soil erosion reduce significantly.Therefore,increasing the largest patch index,patch cohesion and aggregation index of the watershed landscape can enhance the function of water storage and soil conservation as well as ecological optimization in the windwater erosion crisscross region.The results can provide theoretical support for the ecological environment construction and comprehensive utilization of water and soil resources.     

农田土壤磷的环境指标研究进展

为了研究农田土壤磷的环境指标,综述了国内外1984—2014年农田土壤磷的环境指标研究,发现对于农田土壤磷的环境指标研究不断深入,虽然起步晚,但是进展较快。从研究农田土壤磷的流失途径和流失形态着手,发现土壤水溶性磷、颗粒态磷等不同形态的有效磷含量与地表径流中的磷含量呈现显著相关,流失至水体的磷含量与土壤Olsen-P含量具有较高的相关性,把土壤Olsen-P作为农田土壤磷的环境指标具有准确性及可靠性。综述国内外农田土壤磷的环境指标研究表明:目标水体为湖库和河流的土壤Olsen-P环境阈值分别为25 mg/kg和75 mg/kg。超过该临界值时,土壤径流、排水和渗漏液中磷含量将明显增加,加大农田中土壤磷进入水体的风险,造成水体富营养化,对水环境产生破坏。农田土壤磷的环境指标研究还存在不足,今后还需要研究农田土壤磷素在流失过程中的削减系数,以及农田土壤磷素通过地表径流与土壤侵蚀淋溶之间的交互作用机理。     

Changes in microrelief and their effects on infiltration and erosion during simulated rainfall

The erosivity of soils under a given rainfall energy appears to vary greatly among soil orders, probably reflecting differences in clay composition and organic matter content. This study was conducted to quantify microrelief, infiltration, and sediment yield changes during three consecutive simulated rain events on a Udic Haploboroll and a Typic Hapludalf from Minnesota, and a Mollic Kandiudalf, and Typic Palehumult from Uganda. Air dry aggregates (< 5 mm) were packed in 19 1 containers tilted to a 5% slope and were subjected to three consecutive high energy rain storms (63 mm h⁻¹) for a duration of 1 h. Runoff and sediment were continuously monitored during a storm. Infiltration was measured by continued weighing of the soil and containers. An automated non-contact laser relief meter was used to measure changes in soil roughness initially and after each storm. Soil surface roughness decreased during the rain events indicating that aggregate breakdown was the dominant process in seal formation. For example, random roughness decreased form 5.9 to 4.0 mm on Barnes loam and from 9.7 to 6.9 mm on Renova silt loam with cumulative rainfall of 0 and 126 mm. These infiltration rates indicated that the Barnes Loam (Haploboroll) and Kabanyolo clay (Kandiudalf) were unstable soils while Kachwekano clay (Palehumult) and Renova silt loam (Hapludalf) were quite stable. Final infiltration rates after 3 consecutive rainfalls on Kachwekano clay (15 mm h⁻¹) and Renova silt loam (13 mm h⁻¹) [the stable aggregate soils] were significantly higher than those of Barnes loam (4 mm h⁻¹) and Kabanyolo clay (3 mm h⁻¹). For the two stable soils a high infiltration rate on a rough surface was maintained until aggregate breakdown occurred and runoff began. Sediment yield from Barnes loam (29 kg m⁻²) and Kabanyolo clay (28 kg m⁻²) was significantly greater than soil loss from Kachwekano clay (0 kg m⁻²) and Renova silt loam (6 kg m⁻²). The microrelief method to quantify aggregate stability is an improvement over wet sieving and other related measurements because of its rapidity and because the statistical quantification can be linked to physical processes.     

Surface seal micromorphology as affected by fluidized bed combustion bottom-ash

Amendments that alter clay dispersion and aggregate disintegration also change soil porosity and sealing. Soils selected for this study had increased (Mollisol, Oxisol, and Vertisol), decreased (Oxisol), or non-affected (Oxisol and Ultisol) water infiltration when fluidized bed combustor bottom-ash (FBCBA) was surface applied to decrease dispersion. Soil was sieved to pass 8-mm, packed into small erosion pans, prewetted by capillarity, and subjected to 110 mm h⁻¹ simulated rain until steady state infiltration. Image analysis was used to quantify crust morphology, porosity and characteristics of the seal and the unsealed soil below it. A conspicuous feature was a structural crust at the surface with a continuous dense layer of lesser porosity and smaller pores than uncrusted soil. The seal showed no evidence of a “washed-in” zone of illuvial clay in the control treatment, although dispersed clay was observed in the percolating water for some soils. Where FBCBA was effective in increasing water infiltration, an increase in total porosity attributed to planar pores was observed. A sandy loam Oxisol was the least prone to sealing. For this soil, a considerable amount of dispersed clay was observed in the control, while FBCBA rapidly flocculated clay and formed an illuvial clay layer, lowering infiltration. A layer of eluvial silt and fine sand was observed at the surface of soils where considerable dispersion occurred on non-treated soils. Differences in steady-state infiltration could not be explained by the variation in total porosity or pore shape. Spatial variability, pore continuity, and expansion/contraction of clays obscure any relationship with an averaged infiltration even on a small plot.     

Furrow erosion and aggregate stability variation in a Portneuf silt loam

Numerous soil factors, including aggregate stability, affect erosion rates from irrigated furrows. Since aggregate stability varies within growing seasons, furrow erosion may vary as well. The study objectives were to (1) measure furrow erosion and aggregate stability periodically over two growing seasons, (2) statistically characterize the temporal variation in furrow erosion and aggregate stability, and (3) relate variation in erosion rates to changes in aggregate stability and other soil properties. Erosion rates from replicated, previously unirrigated furrows in fallow plots on a Portneuf silt loam (coarse-silty, mixed, mesic Durixerollic Calciorthid) at Kimberly, Idaho, USA, were measured every 2–3 weeks from mid-May through mid-August 1988, and from late-April to late-August 1989. During each 6.5-h irrigation, three furrows in 1988 and four furrows in 1989 were irrigated at an inflow rate of 11.3 l·min⁻¹. At each irrigation, soil samples were taken to a depth of 5 cm from the bottom of furrows adjacent to or near those irrigated. From these samples, soil gravimetric water content was measured and aggregate stability was determined by wet sieving. Erosion from furrows not previously irrigated varied greatly when measured throughout two growing seasons. For both years, erosion rates were significantly lower later in the growing season than earlier. For a 4.0% slope area in 1988, furrow erosion rates varied over the entire season by a factor of six or more while aggregate stability varied (increased) by only 17%. Thus, aggregate stability was not significantly correlated with furrow erosion rates.     

紫色土区林地土壤入渗性能试验研究

土壤入渗是土壤水分运动的重要组成部分。为了准确测得紫色土区林地土壤入渗性能,用双环法和环刀法对其进行测定,并对2种方法的试验结果进行分析和比较,以探求其差异性所在。结果表明：2种方法测定土壤入渗性能各项指标（初渗速率、稳渗速率、平均入渗率）差别较大,它们主要受土壤理化性质及测定条件影响;在试验中双环法测得的初渗速率和平均入渗率差异性要比环刀法的大,稳渗速率则比环刀法小;双环法测得的入渗性能各项指标均值皆比环刀法的大,其中初渗速率大了2.36倍,稳渗速率大了2.17倍,平均入渗率大了2倍;采用4种常用入渗模型对双环法和环刀法测得的结果进行拟合时,其效果表现为：Horton模型>通用经验模型>Kostiakov模型>Philip模型,且环刀法比双环法好;土壤累计入渗量采用一元二次方程拟合比采用一元一次方程拟合好,一元二次方程拟合的决定系数R²都在0.99以上。该试验可以为紫色土区林地土壤入渗的研究提供资料参考。     

不同林龄杂交楝(Azadirachta indica×Melia azedarach)人工林土壤水土保持功能研究

为了明确林龄对杂交楝（印楝×苦楝）人工林土壤水土保持功能的影响,通过测定土壤持水能力、渗透能力和抗蚀能力来综合评价不同林龄杂交楝人工林保持水土功能。结果表明,随着杂交楝林龄增加,林地土壤孔隙结构得到改善、持水性能增加、渗透能力增大,提高了土壤水稳性指数,增加了土壤抗蚀性,土壤水土保持功能得到增强。3年生杂交楝林分的土壤持水性能、渗透能力和抗蚀性与1年生林分之间无显著差异,5年生杂交楝林地各指标均比1年生和3年生林分有显著提高。5年生杂交楝林地的土壤最大持水量、总孔隙度、非毛管孔隙度、平均渗透速率和水稳性指数分别比1年生林地增加18.6%、11.4%、19.8%、45%、30.1%。因此,种植杂交楝可以在短期内提高林分的土壤水土保持功能,在山地丘陵地区值得大力发展杂交楝。     

Prediction Model of Soil Erosion Amount in Highway Engineering during Construction Period in Mountainous Area

The highway project in mountainous area will lead to serious soil erosion,due to its long road line and large volume of the work.While the program of water and soil conservation is drawn up,the prediction of the amount of soil erosion is needed. The whole amount of soil erosion comprises primary and new soil erosion amount. The primary soil erosion amount may be predicted by the method of average erosion modulus or universal soil loss equation.The new soil erosion amount is made up of erosion amount due to disturbed earth surface and discarded soil.Finally, the prediction model of soil erosion amount about a specific highway project during its construction period in mountainous area is analyzed.