Modelling soil compaction impacts on nitrous oxide emissions in arable fields

Nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions comprise the major share of agriculture's contribution to greenhouse gases; however, our understanding of what is actually happening in the field remains incomplete, especially concerning the multiple interactions between agricultural practices and N₂O emissions. Soil compaction induces major changes in the soil structure and the key variables controlling N₂O emissions. Our objective was to analyse the ability of a process‐based model (Nitrous Oxide Emissions (NOE)) to simulate the impact of soil compaction on N₂O emission kinetics obtained from field experiments. We used automatic chambers to continuously monitor N₂O and CO₂ emissions on uncompacted and compacted areas in sugar beet fields during 2 years. Soil compaction led to smaller CO₂ emissions and larger N₂O emissions by inducing anoxic conditions favourable for denitrification. Cumulative N₂O emissions during the crop cycles were 944 and 977 g N ha⁻¹ in uncompacted plots and 1448 and 1382 g N ha⁻¹ in compacted plots in 2007 and 2008, respectively. The NOE model ( Hénault et al., 2005 ) simulated 106 and 138 g N₂O‐N ha⁻¹ in uncompacted plots and 1550 and 650 g N₂O‐N ha⁻¹ in compacted plots in 2007 and 2008, respectively, markedly under‐estimating the nitrification rates and associated N₂O emissions. We modified the model on the basis of published results in order to better simulate nitrification and account for varying N₂O fractions of total end‐products in response to varying soil water and nitrate contents. The modified model (NOE2) better predicted nitrification rates and N₂O emissions following fertilizer addition. Using a fine vertical separation of soil layers of configurable, but constant, thickness (1 cm) also improved the simulations. NOE2 predicted 428 and 416 g N‐N₂O ha⁻¹ in uncompacted plots and 1559 and 1032 g N‐ N₂O ha⁻¹ in compacted plots in 2007 and 2008, respectively. These results show that a simple process‐based model can be used to predict successfully the post‐fertilizer addition kinetics of N₂O emissions and the impact of soil compaction on these emissions. However, large emissions later on during the cropping cycle were not captured by the model, emphasizing the need for further research.     

履带式行走机构压实作用下土壤应力分布均匀性分析

履带式行走机构因具有较小的接地压力而被逐渐应用在大型农业车辆上,以减小对土壤的压实。然而由于履带下应力分布的不均匀,导致农业车辆对土壤的最大应力并未有效减小,对土壤较长的压力作用时间反而增加了土壤被压实的风险。应力分布的不均匀还会造成履带沉陷量的增大,降低车辆在软土地面的通过性能。为了研究履带式行走机构压实作用下土壤内的应力分布规律以及如何提高应力分布的均匀性,以缓解履带车辆对土壤压实作用、提高履带车辆软地通过能力,该文采用侧断面水平钻孔埋设压力传感器的方法,测得了履带式行走机构压实作用下履带中心线横截面内0.35 m深度土壤内沿履带长度方向上的垂直及水平应力分布;同时研究了履带张紧力大小对应力分布均匀性的影响。结果表明,履带式行走机构下的垂直应力在各负重轮的轴线处呈现一个应力峰值;水平应力在各负重轮轴线的前、后方分别呈现一个应力峰值,且最小应力在轴线处。各负重轮下的应力峰值大小不同。最大垂直应力出现在履带式行走机构后端的导向轮处;最大水平应力出现在后支重轮与导向轮之间。适当减小履带张紧力能够提高垂直及水平应力分布的均匀性。履带张紧力由1.8×10⁴k Pa减小至...     

土壤紧实胁迫对黄瓜碳水化合物代谢的影响

用容重分别为1.25 g/cm3(疏松土壤,即对照)和1.55 g/cm3(紧实土壤)的土壤进行盆栽试验,研究了土壤紧实胁迫对“津春4号”黄瓜(Cucumis sativusL.)不同生育期叶片和根系碳水化合物代谢的影响,以探讨土壤紧实胁迫对黄瓜生长产生影响的机理.结果表明,在土壤紧实胁迫条件下,黄瓜不同生育期叶片的净光合速率(Pn)、气孔导度(Gs)和蒸腾速率(Tr)均显著下降,胞间CO2浓度(Ci)显著升高,光合作用受到抑制;叶片中蔗糖磷酸合成酶(SPS)活性显著降低,蔗糖合成酶(SS)、酸性转化酶(AI)和中性转化酶(NI)活性显著增强,蔗糖、葡萄糖、果糖和淀粉含量显著增加,蔗糖的合成与输出受到抑制;不同生育期根系SPS、AI和NI活性显著下降,而SS活性显著增强,蔗糖、葡萄糖和果糖含量显著增加,淀粉含量基本不变.这表明,土壤紧实胁迫抑制了黄瓜叶片中同化物的合成和输出,降低了碳水化合物向根系中的输入,阻碍了根系对碳水化合物的利用,使植株矮小,产量下降.     

Variation of textural porosity of a clay-loam soil during compaction

The effect of compaction on the porosity of aggregates was studied in the laboratory using mercury porosimetry and backscattered electron scanning images (BESI) of polished thin sections. Porosity was divided into structural and textural porosity, and then textural porosity into lacunar and clayey porosity. For aggregates equilibrated at a water potential of ?1 kPa and pressures of 50 and 200 kPa, compaction of structural porosity resulted in an increase of textural porosity. For aggregates equilibrated at a water potential of ?1 kPa and an applied pressure of 600 kPa, the structural porosity strongly decreased but did not result in a variation of textural porosity. For aggregates equilibrated at water potentials of ?63 and ?10³ kPa and the three values of pressure studied, textural porosity was unaffected by compaction whatever the evolution of structural porosity. The BESI indicated that the increase in textural porosity which was recorded by mercury porosimetry for aggregates equilibrated at a water potential of ?1 kPa and applied pressures of 50 and 200 kPa was due to the formation of relict structural pores during compaction. The relict structural pores resulted from partial distortion of the structural pores within the original aggregates. These relict structural pores still had the morphology of structural pores on BESI, but they were accessible to mercury through the necks of textural pores identified as lacunar pores. Results also indicate that massive structure frequently seen in the field for these soils and interpreted as resulting either from structural collapse during rewetting or from compaction actually resulted mainly from wheel compaction.     

A simplified method for estimating soil compaction

We describe a simplified model that allows users to explore some of the main aspects of soil compaction. It is intended for use by non-experts, such as students, and is written as an easy-to-use spreadsheet. It estimates soil bulk density under the centre-line of a wheel track from readily available tyre details. The model uses an analytical method to estimate the propagation of stress in the soil. It contains compactibility data for contrasting soils and it accounts for both rebound and recompression realistically. We present examples that show the potential of the model in selecting tyres and wheel systems to minimise compaction.     

Traffic-induced soil compaction during manure spreading in spring in South-East Norway

The objective of this study was to evaluate long-term effects of two tillage regimes (ploughing and minimum tillage) on the bearing capacity of a clay rich soil, by using two different slurry tankers (4.1 and 6.6 Mg wheel load) and contrasting wheeling frequencies (1 and 10 passes). The soil strength was assessed by laboratory measurements of the precompression stress (Pc) at ?6 kPa in topsoil (20 cm) and subsoil (40 and 60 cm) samples. Stress propagation, elastic and plastic deformation during wheeling were measured in the field with combined stress-state-transducer and displacement transducer system. Results presented in this study show that minimum tilled soil had 74% higher Pc than ploughed soil in the upper soil layer, whilst differences were less distinct in subsoil. Wheeling increased Pc at all soil depths. Compared to ploughing, higher strength in the upper layer of minimum tilled soil led on average to 60% and 48% reductions in the major principal stress with the use of the light and heavy slurry tanker, respectively. The extent of the major principal stress was dependent on the ground pressure in the topsoil. The first pass of a wheel caused the greatest damage in some cases, but all wheelings led to accumulative plastic deformation in both vertical and horizontal directions. Wheeling with high intensity would have exceeded Pc in all cases when soil was at a matric potential of ?6 kPa. The results show that soil water content is an important factor influencing bearing capacity. Drier soil (?100 kPa), in combination with minimum tillage, limited the occurrence of stresses exceeding Pc in the upper soil layer.     

土壤紧实胁迫对黄瓜生长、产量及养分吸收的影响

用容重分别为1.2、1.4和1.6.g/cm3的土壤进行盆栽试验,研究了土壤紧实度对黄瓜生长、产量及养分吸收的影响。结果表明,当土壤紧实度增大时,黄瓜秧苗的株高在定植后的15.d后受到显著抑制;第4叶的叶宽和叶长在定植后9～17.d内增加;茎粗则是在稍紧的土壤中(R.1.4)最大,过紧的土壤中(R.1.6)最小;根系伸长生长受阻,干物质质量及活力显著下降,根冠比降低;生物学产量、经济产量、经济系数的变化情况及植株对氮、磷、钾吸收量的变化与茎粗的变化趋势相同。在本试验条件下,容重为1.2.g/cm3的土壤利于株高及根系的生长,容重1.4g/cm3的土壤则利于茎粗、根系养分的吸收及产量的增加。     

Soil compaction and stress propagation after different wheeling intensities on a silt soil in South-East Norway

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of wheeling with two different wheel loads (1.7 and 2.8?Mg) and contrasting wheeling intensities (1x and 10x) on the bearing capacity of a Stagnosol derived from silty alluvial deposits. Soil strength was assessed by laboratory measurements of the precompression stress in topsoil (20?cm) and subsoil (40 and 60?cm) samples. Stress propagation, as well as elastic and plastic deformation during wheeling were measured in the field with combined stress state (SST) and displacement transducers (DTS). We also present results from soil physical analyses (bulk density, air capacity, saturated hydraulic conductivity) and barley yields from the first two years after the compaction. Although the wheel loads used were comparatively small, typical for the machinery used in Norway, the results show that both increased wheel load and wheeling intensity had negative effects on soil physical parameters especially in the topsoil but with similar tendencies also in the subsoil. Stress propagation was detected down to 60?cm depth (SST). The first wheeling was most harmful, but all wheelings led to accumulative plastic soil deformation (DTS). Under the workable conditions in this trial, increased wheeling with a small machine was more harmful to soil structure than a single wheeling with a heavier machine. However, the yields in the first two years after the compaction did not show any negative effect of the compaction.     

The impact of forest paths upon adjacent vegetation: effects of the path surfacing material on the species composition and soil compaction

This paper describes the vegetation which develops around forest paths (closed to public motor vehicles) in a 4383 ha-beech forest in central Belgium. The main purposes of these investigations were to analyse how far into the forest stands, paths have an influence on the surrounding plant species composition; and to acquire more specific information on the particular effect of some types of surfacing materials. The results show that forest paths have a significant effect on the surrounding plant assemblages. Some species are significantly associated with one particular type of surfacing material. Globally, the presence of a path results in an increase in the number of ruderal species, disturbance indicators, nitrogen-demanding species and indicators of basic conditions. Eutrophication and pH increase, as inferred from the plant composition, are perceptible up to a minimum distance of 10 m from the path. The consequences for long-term conservation of the woodland flora are discussed.     

A model for estimating crop yield losses caused by soil compaction

A computerized empirical model for estimating the crop yield losses caused by machinery-induced soil compaction and the value of various countermeasures is presented, along with some examples of estimations made with it. The model is based mainly on results of Swedish field trials, and predicts the effects of compaction in a tillage system that includes mouldboard ploughing. It is designed for use at farm level and predicts four categories of effects: (1) Effects of recompaction after ploughing. The calculations are based on the wheel track distribution in the field and the relationship between “degree of compactness” of the plough layer and crop yield. (2) Effects of plough layer compaction persisting after ploughing. Crop yield losses are estimated from traffic intensity in Mgkm ha⁻¹ (Mgkm = the product of the weight of a machine and the distance driven), soil moisture content, tyre inflation pressure and clay content. (3) Effects of subsoil compaction. The calculations are similar to those presented under point (2), but only vehicles with high axle load are considered. These effects are the most persistent. (4) Effects of traffic in ley crops. The estimations are based on wheel track distribution, soil moisture content and several other factors.     

Peanut macronutrient absorptions characteristics in response to soil compaction stress in typical brown soils under various tillage systems

Soil tillage, a major agricultural management, could effectively alter soil structure and plant growth, particularly under groundnut plantations. To understand effects of different tillage measures on nitrogen(N), phosphorus(P) and potassium(K) absorptions and use efficiencies for peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.), four tillage treatments: no tillage (NT), deep loosing (DL), deep plow (DP), and shallow plow (SP), were examined for two growing years at three typical peanut-producing sites of Qishan, Wangcheng, and Xiadian in Shandong, China. Results showed that average soil bulk density under DL, DP, and SP at the three sites was decreased by 7.1–19.5% compared with NT treatment for the 2 years. Significantly higher average total N accumulations in underground peanut part patterned as DP (163 kg/ha) > SP (149 kg/ha) > DL (144 kg/ha) > NT (117 kg/ha), while total N in aboveground peanut part was 8.7–22.1% higher under DP than other treatments. Absorptions of N, P, and K in underground parts were extremely significantly contributed to high peanut yields (P < 0.01), whereas increase of N and P absorptions in aboveground parts did not promote peanut yields. Soil bulk density was significantly negatively correlated with plant macronutrient amounts in underground peanut parts and peanut yields (P < 0.01). Moreover, N:P, N:K, and P:K ratios were similar between NT and noncompaction stress treatments of DL, DP, and SP. These results indicate that DP is a rational tillage practice for promoting nutrient uptake amount, efficiency, and peanut yields by alleviating soil compaction stress in peanut-producing fields.     

土壤紧实胁迫对黄瓜叶片光合作用及叶绿素荧光参数的影响

紧实是温室土壤的疲劳症状之一,它对作物的生长、产量及养分吸收均有影响。本试验以容重为指标,用盆栽试验模拟温室土壤的物理疲劳症,研究了土壤紧实胁迫对黄瓜叶片光合作用及叶绿素荧光参数的影响,探讨温室土壤物理疲劳对黄瓜叶片光合作用产生影响的机理。结果表明,土壤紧实胁迫条件下黄瓜叶片的净光合速率（Pn）、气孔导度(Gs)及蒸腾速率(Tr)下降,而胞间CO2浓度（Ci）却增大,最终导致叶片干物质的累积量减少,第一雌花节位降低,果实发育提早。叶片的叶绿素含量减少,光合活性（Fv）、光系统Ⅱ（PSⅡ）反应中心的电子传递活性（Fm/Fo）、光能的最大转化效率（Fv/Fm）及PSⅡ的潜在活性（Fv/Fo）降低以及PSⅡ的光能利用率下降是紧实胁迫条件下黄瓜叶片光合作用减弱的原因。     

路基土壤固有频率与密实度关系的测试分析

明确路基土壤固有频率与土壤密实度的关系是准确建立振动压路机振动轮振动信号与被压实材料压实度关系的基础,也是通过在线检测振动轮加速度、实时了解路面的压实状况、进一步有效调整振动压路机振动参数的必要条件。该文针对特定路基土壤,自制螺旋压实机构压制路基土壤圆柱试样,依照模态分析法,采用INV306DF便携式智能信号采集处理分析系统进行了不同压实度圆柱试样的固有频率测试,获得了路基土壤固有频率与土壤密实度的函数关系表达式,研究结果可为完善振动压路机智能化控制系统设计提供依据。     

Use of in-growth soil cores in mesh bags for studies of relations between soil compaction and root growth

Using in-growth soil cores in cylindrical mesh bags, the effects of 3 soil compaction treatments on growth of crop roots were studied in a sandy soil. The bags were inserted after crop emergence in holes (70 mm diameter; 60 cm depth) augered in the soil in crop row interspaces. In 1984 (with rapessed), at all sampling dates, root biomass in the inserted cores decreased with increased compaction of the plough layer (0–25 cm) as well as the subsoil (25–60 cm). Root biomass in the subsoil was low. In 1985 (with wheat), the effects of compaction in the subsoil were similar, although root biomass was greater than in 1984. However, in the plough layer there were significant differences in root biomass on only one sampling date. The mesh bag technique should be a useful complement to other field methods in studies of relations between physical soil characteristics or tillage treatments and root growth.     

The consequences of wheel-induced soil compaction and subsoiling for silage maize on a sandy loam soil in Belgium

In Belgium, growing silage maize in a monoculture often results in increased soil compaction. The aim of our research was to quantify the effects of this soil compaction on the dry matter (DM) yields and the nitrogen use of silage maize (Zea mays L.). On a sandy loam soil of the experimental site of Ghent University (Belgium), silage maize was grown on plots with traditional soil tillage (T), on artificially compacted plots (C) and on subsoiled plots (S). The artificial compaction, induced by multiple wheel-to-wheel passages with a tractor, increased the soil penetration resistance up to more than 1.5 MPa in the zone of 0–35 cm of soil depth. Subsoiling broke an existing plough pan (at 35–45 cm of soil depth). During the growing season, the release of soil mineral nitrogen by mineralisation was substantially lower on the C plots than on the T and S plots. Silage maize plants on the compacted soil were smaller and flowering was delayed. The induced soil compaction caused a DM yield loss of 2.37 Mg ha⁻¹ (−13.2%) and decreased N uptake by 46.2 kg ha⁻¹ (−23.2%) compared to the T plots. Maize plants on compacted soil had a lower, suboptimal nitrogen content. Compared with the traditional soil tillage that avoided heavy compaction, subsoiling offered no significant benefits for the silage maize crop. It was concluded that avoiding heavy soil compaction in silage maize is a major strategy for maintaining crop yields and for enhancing N use efficiency.     

Using arbuscular mycorrhiza to alleviate the stress of soil compaction on wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) growth

Since large areas of agricultural fields in the world become compacted every year, much effort has been made to reduce the adverse effects of soil compaction on plant growth. Mechanical methods to control soil compaction may be laborious and expensive; however, biological methods such as using arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) may be more useful, economically and environmentally. The objectives of this study were: (1) to evaluate the effects of soil compaction on wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) growth, and (2) to evaluate if using AM of different origin can reduce the stressful effects of soil compaction on wheat growth. Unsterilized and sterilized soils, different levels of compaction and three species of arbuscular mycorrhiza were applied in four replicates. The experiments were conducted in the Soil and Water Research Institute, Karaj, Iran. Soil physical and chemical properties were determined. The AM increased wheat growth in both soils at different levels of soil compaction in both experiments. For root, shoot (P=0.1) and grain (P=0.05) dry weights increases were significant. AM enhanced root growth more than shoot growth under compaction (AM resulted in significant increase in root/shoot ratios, P=0.1). Due to its unique characteristics, AM may reduce the stressful effects of soil compaction on wheat growth, though its effectiveness may decrease with increasing compaction.     

Persistence of soil compaction due to high axle load traffic. I. Short-term effects on the properties of clay and organic soils

Short-term effects of high axle load traffic on soil total porosity and pore size distribution were examined in field experiments on a clay (Vertic Cambisol) and an organic soil (Mollic Gleysol) for 3 years after the heavy loading. The clay soil had 48 g clay (particle size less than 2 μm) per 100 g in the topsoil and 65 g per 100 g in the subsoil. The organic soil consisted of well-decomposed sedge peat mixed with clay below 0.2 m depth down to 0.4–0.5 m and was underlain by gythia (organic soil with high clay content). The experimental traffic was applied with a tractor-trailer combination in autumn 1981. The trailer tandem axle load was 19 Mg on the clay and 16 Mg on the organic soil. There were three treatments: one pass with the heavy axle vehicle, with wheel tracks completely covering the plot area, four repeated passes in the same direction, and a control treatment without experimental traffic. During loading, the clay was nearly at field capacity below 0.1 m depth. The organic soil was wetter than field capacity.

One and four passes with the high axle load compacted both soils to a depth of 0.4–0.5 m. On the clay soil the total porosity was reduced by the heavy loading nearly as much as macroporosity (diameter over 30 μm) to 0.5 m depth. On the organic soil, macroporosity was reduced and microporosity (under 30 μm) increased in the 0.2–0.5 m layer by the heavy loading. Total porosity did not reveal the effects of compaction on the organic soil. The compaction of the clay below 0.1 m persisted for 3 years following the treatment despite annual ploughing to a depth of 0.2 m, cropping and deep cracking and freezing. Likewise, in the subsoil (below 0.2 m) of the organic soil, differences in pore size distribution persisted for a period of at least 3 years after the heavy loading.     

Persistence of soil compaction due to high axle load traffic. II. Long-term effects on the properties of fine-textured and organic soils

The long-term effects of high axle load traffic on soil structure were investigated in three field experiments. Two of the experiments were located on fine-textured mineral soils (Vertic Cambisol). The clay soil had 48 g clay (particle size less than 2 μm) per 100 g in the topsoil and 65 g per 100 g in the subsoil, and the loam soil had clay contents of 30 g and 42 g per 100 g in the topsoil and subsoil, respectively. One experiment was located on an organic soil (Mollic Gleysol) consisting of well-decomposed sedge peat mixed with clay from 0.2 to 0.4–0.5 m depth, and underlain by gythia (organic soil with high clay content). In the autumn of 1981, one pass and four repeated passes with a heavy tractor-trailer combination compacted the soils to 0.4–0.5 m depth. The trailer tandem axle load was 19 Mg on the clay and 16 Mg on the other soils.

For 9 years after the experimental traffic, the main crops grown were spring cereals. During this time, the maximum axle load applied during field operations was 5 Mg and the maximum tyre inflation pressure was 150 kPa. The clay and loam froze to 0.5 m depth for 6 and 2 years, respectively. During several growing seasons all three soils dried and cracked. In the ninth year after the loading, soil penetrometer resistance, saturated hydraulic conductivity (K_sat), macroporosity and number and area of cylindrical biopores were measured and the visual structure of the soils examined.

Compaction in the plough layer was alleviated by ploughing and natural processes, whereas in the subsoil the effects of the compaction were still measurable, in all experiments, in the ninth year after the high axle load traffic. In the clay soil in the 0.3–0.5 m layer and in the organic soil in the 0.28–0.4 m layer, the penetrometer resistance was 22–26% greater and the soil structure more massive in the plots compacted with four passes than in the control plots. In the 0.4–0.55 m layer in all soils, the loading with four passes decreased K_sat by 60–98% and macroporosity (diameter greater than 300 μm) by 37–70%. In the fine-textured mineral subsoils, cylindrical biopores were found in all treatments. The trend of the results was, however, for biopores to be fewer in compacted than in control plots.