黄土丘陵区白羊草与达乌里胡枝子混播草地土壤呼吸日变化特征

土壤呼吸是反映土壤质量和肥力性状的重要指标,阐明禾―豆混播草地土壤呼吸作用的变化规律及其影响因素,可以为准确评估混播草地的环境效应及响应提供依据。在2011和2012年6月份,采用动态密闭气室分析法,比较了白羊草(Bothriochloa ischaemum)与达乌里胡枝子(Lespedeza davurica)不同比例间作混播草地总土壤呼吸速率的日变化特征、混播植物贡献率以及温度敏感性等。结果表明,不同混播比例草地的总土壤呼吸速率日变化为单峰型曲线,峰值出现在12:00~14:00。总土壤呼吸速率日均值高低顺序为单播白羊草白羊草和达乌里胡枝子间作单播达乌里胡枝子。不同间作比例草地的总土壤呼吸速率与白昼气温相关显著(P0.05),而与5、10和15 cm土层白昼土壤温度关系不明显;单播条件下,白羊草草丛的土壤呼吸对温度的敏感性高于达乌里胡枝子;各草地土壤呼吸Q10值的变化范围为1.48~2.61,以单播白羊草最高,单播达乌里胡枝子和两者间作混播草地间无显著差异(P0.05)。     

黑河源区退化草地恢复过程中土壤磷养分及其调控因子

为探究不同恢复方式对退化草地土壤磷养分含量变化的影响,本研究以黑河源区的单播和混播栽培草地为研究对象,以未退化草地和极重度退化草地为对照,对草地植被特征、土壤物理性质及土壤磷养分变化规律进行分析。结果表明：栽培草地的建植显著提高了极重度退化草地植被的地上、地下生物量,且混播草地的植被多样性优于单播草地;而单播草地的土壤磷养分(全磷、有机磷、速效磷、微生物生物量磷)含量均优于混播草地。约束排序偏分析结果表明,土壤物理性质是影响土壤磷养分含量的主要因子。相关性分析结果显示,草地土壤含水量、土壤黏粒、土壤毛管孔隙度均与土壤速效磷含量显著相关。采用单播恢复的栽培草地土壤含水量、土壤黏粒、土壤毛管孔隙度均优于混播草地。综上,人工恢复是快速治理极重度退化草地的有效措施,且采用单播恢复的栽培草地在土壤磷养分恢复方面相对稳定,但尚未恢复到未退化草地的状态,后期应持续加强对栽培草地的管理。     

紫花苜蓿与3种多年生禾草混播草地的土壤养分特征

为了探究紫花苜蓿(Medicago sativa)与不同禾草混播草地的土壤养分分布与积累规律,将紫花苜蓿与无芒雀麦(Bromus inermis)、草地早熟禾(Poa pratensis)、苇状羊茅(Festuca arundinacea)均分别按1∶2、1∶1和2∶1比例进行同行混播,研究混播组合和混播比例对0–20 cm和20–40 cm土层土壤养分特征的影响。结果表明,1)较苜蓿单播,紫花苜蓿与3种多年生禾草混播对浅层(0–20 cm)土壤有机质、速效钾、碱解氮、速效磷、全磷的积累有显著的促进作用(P 0.05)。2) 3种混播组合中,紫花苜蓿+无芒雀麦改善土壤肥力的效果优于其他两种混播组合。0–40 cm土层紫花苜蓿+无芒雀麦更有利于土壤有机质、氮素、磷素养分的积累,而紫花苜蓿+草地早熟禾混播对于钾素的积累效果更明显。3)混播比例的变化对浅层的速效磷、全磷,深层土壤有机质、碱解氮影响显著(P 0.05),增加苜蓿的比例,土壤养分含量增加。3种混播比例中,0–20 cm土层紫花苜蓿+无芒雀麦配比处理1∶1和20–40 cm土层紫花苜蓿+无芒雀麦配比处理2∶1较其他两个比例混播更有利于速效养分的积累;0–20 cm和20–40 cm土层紫花苜蓿+草地早熟禾配比处理1∶2土壤速效钾、全钾含量最高,2∶1土壤碱解氮、全氮、全磷含量最高,而紫花苜蓿+苇状羊茅配比处理2∶1土壤有机质、全氮、全磷、全钾和速效养分含量均高于其他两个比例混播。4)空间分布上,随着土层加深,除草地早熟禾单播和紫花苜蓿+苇状羊茅配比处理土壤全钾出现深层高于浅层现象外,其余所有混播处理土壤养分含量均为浅层高于深层,呈现养分表聚性现象。     

播种方式对紫花苜蓿+无芒雀麦人工草地浅剖面土壤C、N分布及储量的影响

采用分层取样法研究了两年生单播紫花苜蓿、单播无芒雀麦、隔行混播和同行混播人工栽培草地土壤碳、氮含量及分布状况。结果表明,在牧草生长时期,单播紫花苜蓿草地土壤容重最大,单播无芒雀麦草地容重最小;0～40cm土层土壤有机碳含量以单播紫花苜蓿草地最大,其次为隔行混播草地,二者与单播无芒雀麦草地、同行混播草地间差异达极显著水平(P＜0.01);土壤全氮含量为单播无芒雀麦草地最低,其他处理间无显著差异(P＞0.05);在0～40cm全剖面,单播紫花苜蓿草地有机碳储量最大,为46.98t/hm²,隔行混播草地次之,为44.77t/hm²,二者显著高于同行混播草地(38.75t/hm²)及单播无芒雀麦草地(36.37t/hm²)(P＜0.05)。     

小麦间套作苜蓿对土壤养分及作物养分吸收效率的影响

依托2014年晋西南开展的田间试验,分析了2017年和2018年小麦单播、苜蓿单播和小麦-苜蓿混播的土壤有效养分含量、作物产量及其养分吸收效率。结果表明:在0～60cm土层内,3月份苜蓿单播速效氮含量高于小麦单播和混播,6月份苜蓿单播土壤有机质含量低于小麦单播和混播。整个生育期60～200cm层苜蓿单播速效氮和速效磷含量低于小麦单播和混播。与单播相比,小麦-苜蓿混播不仅提高了小麦植株氮含量,还增加了作物系统植株养分积累量,提高了养分吸收效率。小麦-苜蓿混播净增产高达2903.9kg/hm~2,作物系统产量较小麦单播提高了22.4%,较苜蓿单播提高了44.8%,土地当量比大于1,表明间套作种植具有产量优势。     

苜蓿、无芒雀麦单播与混播对土壤有机质和速效养分的影响

2003年5月在内蒙古自治区通辽市内蒙古民族大学试验农场建立试验小区,研究科尔沁地区不同生长年限的甘农1号杂花苜蓿(Medicago varia Martin. cv.Gannong No.1)、无芒雀麦(Bromus inermis Leyss.)单播与混播草地土壤有机质、速效氮和速效钾含量动态,旨在为该地区人工草地管理和生态恢复提供理论依据。结果表明:随着牧草生长年限延长,土壤有机质、速效钾含量呈递增趋势,速效氮含量仅在0~10cm土层呈增长趋势,而在10~30cm土层呈下降趋势;草地类型对土壤有机质、速效氮和速效钾积累有明显影响;无芒雀麦单播草地土壤有机质和速效钾平均含量最高,速效氮平均含量最低,混播草地则更有利于土壤速效氮的积累。     

不同混播方式下燕麦+箭筈豌豆混播草地的生产性能及土壤养分特征

为阐明混播方式对燕麦(Avena sativa)+箭筈豌豆(Vicia sativa)型豆禾混播草地混播优势的影响,在新疆昭苏盆地采用同行混播、异行混播与不同豆禾比的播种方式建植混播草地,利用牧草产量、营养物质产量和籽粒产量等指标分析混播方式对生产性能优势的影响,以不同混播方式下土壤养分变化与生产性能的内在联系为依据,探讨生产性能优势获得的途径。结果表明,1)燕麦与箭筈豌豆混播可获得混播优势,其中同行混播+豆禾比50∶50、异行混播+豆禾比50∶50和同行混播+豆禾比75∶25组合牧草产量和种子产量优势明显,生产性能较高。2)混播方式对土壤有机质和土壤全量养分影响较小,单播燕麦具有较高的土壤浅层速效磷含量,箭筈豌豆的生物固氮作用可增加土壤氮素养分的供应,而同行混播方式则有利于土壤碱解氮的积累。3)以混播群体结构作为控制因素时,牧草和粗蛋白产量依赖土壤氮素养分,与土壤速效磷含量呈负相关关系;以混播比例作为控制因素时,高箭筈豌豆混播比例下(80%和100%),土壤氮素养分可负向影响牧草和粗蛋白产量、牧草产量优势,否则则为正向影响,土壤速效磷含量负向影响牧草和粗蛋白产量、产量优势,正向影响种子产量优势,与混播比例无关联。因此,在冷凉牧区进行燕麦+箭筈豌豆型混播草地建植时,采取同行混播+豆禾比75∶25的混播组合既能提高土壤肥力,还能收获牧草产量和品质较优的草产品。     

播种方式和行距对高寒地区燕麦/饲用豌豆草地土壤理化特性的影响

禾豆混播具有改善土壤理化特性、提高牧草产量和品质的效应，是栽培草地建植最主要的方式之一。本研究通过对青藏高原高寒地区不同播种方式(混播、间作和单播)和播种行距(30、25、20和15 cm)下，燕麦(Avena sativa)/饲用豌豆(Pisum sativum)混播草地土壤理化特性进行定量分析和综合评价，探究研究区较适宜的燕麦和饲用豌豆种植模式。结果表明：燕麦和饲用豌豆间、混作草地较单播草地土壤容重降低，土壤孔隙度增加。与燕麦单播比较，间、混作草地土壤有机质含量分别增加14.60%和16.27%，全氮含量分别增加10.13%和11.39%；与饲用豌豆单播比较，间、混作草地土壤有机质含量分别增加10.42%和12.02%，全氮含量分别增加13.73%和15.03%。燕麦和饲用豌豆混播草地土壤有机质、全氮及速效养分含量均高于间作草地，且混播与间作草地土壤有机质、全氮及速效养分含量随播种行距增大而增大。DTOPSIS模型综合评价表明，燕麦和饲用豌豆混播且行距30 cm处理可显著提高草地土壤肥力，是研究区燕麦和饲用豌豆适宜的种植模式。     

混播比例和施氮肥对箭筈豌豆/燕麦草地根系特性的影响

豆科和禾本科牧草混播是栽培草地的重要模式之一,能显著改善土壤,提升系统可持续生产能力。牧草根系是土壤有机质返还的重要来源,但混播草地中牧草根系特性的变化尚不清楚。以箭筈豌豆和燕麦草地为对象,研究了不同施氮肥水平和混播比例下其根生物量、根性状的变化。结果表明:1)混播比例和施氮肥对草地根生物量和根性状有显著交互作用,混播草地根生物量显著大于单播;与高氮肥处理相比,根生物量在低、中氮肥处理下更高;高氮肥对根长、比根长、根表面积和比根面积在植物生长前期表现为抑制作用,在生长后期随混播中箭筈豌豆比例的增大,抑制作用减轻。2)混播条件下土壤硝态氮含量大于单播,而土壤铵态氮含量仅在乳熟期时大于单播,且随混播中箭筈豌豆比例增大,矿质氮含量增加;施氮肥对0~30 cm土层中的矿质氮含量有显著影响,其含量在施氮肥100 kg·hm^-2下最高,不施肥下最小。3)根生物量与土壤硝态氮含量间显著正相关,根长、根表面积、根体积与土壤硝态氮含量间显著负相关。综上,混播中箭筈豌豆比例的增加有助于改善土壤矿质氮,优化混播草地根性状。     

混播种类与混播比例对豆禾混播草地浅层土壤养分的影响

以3种豆科牧草与3种禾本科牧草在混播种类为3、4、5、6与豆禾比5∶5、4∶6和3∶7条件下建立混播草地。依据2008-2010年各混播处理的土壤浅层有机质、氮、磷、钾养分含量,分析了混播种类与豆禾混播比例对土壤养分分布与积累规律的影响。结果表明,豆禾牧草混播后,土壤碱解氮较单播禾草增加,土壤有效磷则较所有单播草地都增加。随着豆科牧草比例的减少,土壤有机质、碱解氮、全磷和有效磷含量呈减少趋势。混播种类较少时土壤有机质、全氮、有效磷、全钾含量较高,而土壤碱解氮、速效钾含量较低;混播种类较多时土壤碱解氮、速效钾含量较高,而土壤有机质、全磷、有效磷、全钾含量较低。双因素方差分析结果表明,混播种类及混播种类与混播比例的交互效应是影响土壤养分差异的主导因素,而混播比例仅对土壤全磷、全钾含量造成了显著影响(P0.05)。因此,豆禾牧草混播有利于改善土壤速效氮、磷养分的供应,而增加豆科牧草的比例并没有显著增加土壤养分供给(P0.05)。     

白术、微米白术和白术多糖对断奶仔猪生长性能和肠道形态及微生态区系的影响

试验选用96头平均体重14.82 kg左右的杜×长×大断奶仔猪,随机分成4组,每组3栏,每栏8头(公母各半)。对照组饲喂基础日粮,试验1、2、3组分别添加1%80目白术、0.2%白术多糖和1%微米白术。试验期30 d。结果表明:在生长性能方面,与对照组相比,1%微米白术添加组可显著提高日增重(P0.05)、降低饲料增重比和腹泻率,而且效果优于1%80目白术组和0.2%白术多糖组,在肠道形态和肠道微生态区系方面,与对照组相比,日粮添加1%80目白术、0.2%白术多糖、1%微米白术均可不同程度的提高十二指肠和空肠的绒毛高度,加深十二指肠和空肠的隐窝深度,并且增加肠道微生态区系的多样性,其中以1%微米白术添加组的效果最佳。     

Prevalence and seasonal incidence of nematode parasites and fluke infections of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia

Sissay, M.M., Uggla, A. and Waller, P.J., XXXX. Prevalence and seasonal incidence of nematode parasites and fluke infections of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and Production, XXXX. A 2-year abattoir survey was carried out to determine the prevalence, abundance and seasonal incidence of gastro-intestinal (GI) nematodes and trematodes (flukes) of sheep and goats in the semi-arid zone of eastern Ethiopia. During May 2003 to April 2005, viscera including liver, lungs and GI tracts were collected from 655 sheep and 632 goats slaughtered at 4 abattoirs located in the towns of Haramaya, Harar, Dire Dawa and Jijiga in eastern Ethiopia. All animals were raised in the farming areas located within the community boundaries for each town. Collected materials were transported within 24 h to the parasitology laboratory of Haramaya University for immediate processing. Thirteen species belonging to 9 genera of GI nematodes (Haemonchus contortus, Trichostrongylus axei, T. colubriformis, T. vitrinus, Nematodirus filicollis, N. spathiger, Oesophagostomum columbianum, O. venulosum, Strongyloides papillosus, Bunostomum trigonocephalum, Trichuris ovis, Cooperia curticei and Chabertia ovina), and 4 species belonging to 3 genera of trematodes (Fasciola hepatica, F. gigantica, Paramphistomum {Calicohoron} microbothrium and Dicrocoelium dendriticum) were recorded in both sheep and goats. All animals in this investigation were infected with multiple species to varying degrees. The mean burdens of adult nematodes were generally moderate in both sheep and goats and showed patterns of seasonal abundance that corresponded with the bi-modal annual rainfall pattern, with highest burdens around the middle of the rainy season. In both sheep and goats there were significant differences in the mean worm burdens and abundance of the different nematode species between the four geographic locations, with worm burdens in the Haramaya and Harar areas greater than those observed in the Dire Dawa and Jijiga locations. Similar seasonal variations were also observed in the prevalence of flukes. But there were no significant differences in the prevalence of each fluke species between the four locations. Overall, the results showed that Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus, Nematodirus, Oesophagostomum, Fasciola and Paramphistomum species were the most abundant helminth parasites of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia.     

Phase I evaluation of CCNU (lomustine) in tumor-bearing cats

1-(2-Chloroethyl)3-cyclohexyl-1-nitrosourea (CCNU) is an alkylating agent in the nitrosourea subclass. A prospective evaluation of CCNU was done to determine the maximally tolerated dosage of CCNU in tumor-bearing cats. Response data were obtained when available. Twenty-five cats were treated with CCNU at a dosage of 50-60 mg/m3 body surface area. Complete hematologic data were available for 13 cats. Neutropenia was the acute dose-limiting toxicity. The median neutrophil count at the nadir was 1,000 cells/microL (mean, 2,433 cells/microL; range, 0-9,694 cells/microL). The time of neutrophil nadir was variable, occurring 7-28 days after treatment, and counts sometimes did not return to normal for up to 14 days after the nadir. Based on these findings, a 6-week dosing interval and weekly hematologic monitoring after the 1st treatment with CCNU are recommended. The nadir of the platelet count may occur 14-21 days after treatment. The median platelet count at the nadir was 43,500 cells/microL. No gastrointestinal, renal, or hepatic toxicities were observed after a single CCNU treatment, and additional studies to evaluate the potential for cumulative toxicity should be performed. Five cats with lymphoma and 1 cat with mast cell tumor had measurable responses to CCNU. Phase II studies to evaluate antitumor activity should be completed with a dosing regimen of 50-60 mg/m3 every 6 weeks.     

Y‐chromosomal variation of local goat breeds of Turkey close to the domestication centre

Genetic variations in chromosome Y are enabling researchers to identify paternal lineages, which are informative for introgressions and migrations. In this study, the male‐specific region markers, sex‐determining region‐Y (SRY), amelogenin (AMELY) and zinc finger (ZFY) were analysed in seven Turkish native goat breeds, Angora, Kilis, Hair, Honaml?, Norduz, Gürcü and Abaza. A SNP in the ZFY gene defined a new haplotype Y2C. All domestic haplogroups originate from Capra aegagrus, while the finding of Y1A, Y1B, Y2A and Y2C in 32, 4, 126 and 2 Turkish domestic goats, respectively, appears to indicate a predomestic origin of the major haplotypes. The occurrence of four haplotypes in the Hair goat and, in contrast, a frequency of 96% of Y1A in the Kilis breed illustrate that Y‐chromosomal variants have a more breed‐dependent distribution than mitochondrial or autosomal DNA. This probably reflects male founder effects, but a role in adaptation cannot be excluded.     

Prevalence of gastric lesions in racing Alaskan sled dogs

Human and equine athletes are reported to have a high prevalence of gastric disease, and anecdotal evidence suggests a similar phenomenon applies to racing sled dogs. To investigate the prevalence of gastric disease in racing sled dogs, we conducted 2 gastroscopy studies on dogs competing in the annual Iditarod Sled Dog Race. A pilot study of dogs that were either dropped from the 2000 Iditarod Sled Dog Race because of illness or that finished the race indicated that, approximately 5 days after competing, 10 of 28 dogs (35%) had endoscopic evidence of gastric ulceration, erosion, or hemorrhage. The next year, an endoscopic study of 73 dogs participating in the 2001 Iditarod race was performed in order to evaluate a larger population of dogs. Data from 70 of these dogs could be used; 34 (48.5%) had ulceration, erosion, gastric hemorrhage, or some combination of these findings. When this group of 70 dogs was compared retrospectively to a control group of 87 dogs presented to the Texas A&M University (TAMU) Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital, the Iditarod sled dogs had a significantly higher prevalence (P = .049) of gastric lesions. These findings suggest that, similar to athletes of other species, elite canine athletes have an increased prevalence of gastric disease compared to the canine population at large.     

Furosemide continuous rate infusion in the horse: evaluation of enhanced efficacy and reduced side effects

Continuous rate infusion (CRI) of furosemide in humans is considered superior to intermittent administration (IA). This study examined whether furosemide CRI, compared with IA, would increase diuretic efficacy with decreased fluid and electrolyte fluctuations and activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) in the horse. Five mares were used in a crossover-design study. During a 24-hour period, each horse received a total of 3 mg/kg furosemide by either CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h preceded by a loading dose of 0.12 mg/kg IV) or IA (1 mg/kg IV q8h). There was not a statistically significant difference in urine volume over 24 hours between methods; however, urine volume was significantly greater after CRI compared with IA during the first 8 hours ([median 25th percentile, 75th percentile]: 9.6 L [8.9, 14.4] for CRI versus 5.9 L [5.3, 6.0] for IA). CRI produced a more uniform urine flow, decreased fluctuations in plasma volume, and suppressed renal concentrating ability throughout the infusion period. Potassium, Ca, and Cl excretion was greater during CRI than IA (1,133 mmol [1.110, 1,229] versus 764 mmol [709, 904], 102.7 mmol [96.0, 117.2] versus 73.3 mmol [65.0, 73.5], and 1,776 mmol [1,657, 2.378] versus 1,596 mmol [1,457, 1,767], respectively). Elimination half-lives of furosemide were 1.35 and 0.47 hours for CRI and IA, respectively. The area under the excretion rate curve was 1,285.7 and 184.2 mL x mg/mL for CRI and IA, respectively. Furosemide CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h) for 8 hours, preceded by a loading dose (0.12 mg/kg), is recommended when profound diuresis is needed acutely in horses.     

Feline intracranial neoplasia: retrospective review of 160 cases (1985-2001)

The purpose of this study was to determine the frequency of different tumor types within a large cohort of cats with intracranial neoplasia and to attempt to correlate signalment, tumor size and location, and survival time for each tumor. Medical records of 160 cats with confirmed intracranial neoplasia evaluated between 1985 and 2001 were reviewed. Parameters evaluated included age, sex, breed, FeLV/FIV status, clinical signs, duration of signs, number of tumors, tumor location(s), imaging results, treatment, survival times, and histopathologic diagnosis. Most of the cats were older (11.3 +/- 3.8 years). Primary tumors accounted for 70.6% of cases. Metastasis and direct extension of secondary tumors accounted for only 5.6 and 3.8% of cases, respectively. Twelve cats (7.5%) had 2 or more discrete tumors of the same type, whereas 16 cats (10.0%) had 2 different types of intracranial tumors. The most common tumor types were meningioma (n = 93, 58.1%), lymphoma (n = 23, 14.4%), pituitary tumors (n = 14, 8.8%), and gliomas (n = 12, 7.5%). The most common neurological signs were altered consciousness (n = 42, 26.2%), circling (n = 36, 22.5%), and seizures (n = 36, 22.5%). Cats without specific neurological signs were common (n = 34, 21.2%). The tumor was considered an incidental finding in 30 (18.8%) cats. In addition to expected relationships (eg, meninges and meningioma, pituitary and pituitary tumors), we found that lesion location was predictive of tumor type with diffuse cerebral or brainstem involvement predictive of lymphoma and third ventricle involvement predictive of meningioma.     

The Epidemiology of Gastrointestinal Nematodes of Dairy Cattle in Central Kenya

The epidemiology of H. placei and of other gastrointestinal nematodes in yearling dairy cattle was examined on two farms in Kiambu District, central Kenya during each of 13 one-month periods from April 1993 to April 1994. On each farm, 32 newly weaned dairy calves were given a single dose of albendazole and then placed on experimental pastures. Twelve of the animals were designated for bi-monthly slaughter (n = 2) and analysis of worm population characteristics and 20 were designated for blood and faecal collection and for weighing. Two parasite-free tracer calves were grazed alongside the weaner calves each month throughout the study period and were also slaughtered for analysis of worm populations. Faecal egg counts, haematological and serum pepsinogen determinations, herbage larval counts, and animal live weight changes were recorded monthly. The study revealed that Haemonchus placei, Trichostrongylus axei, Cooperia spp. and Oesophagostomum radiatum were responsible for parasitic gastroenteritis and that H. placei was the predominant nematode present in the young cattle on both farms. Faecal egg counts from resident cattle and necropsy worm counts revealed that pasture larval levels were directly related to the amount of rainfall. The total worm burdens in the animals were highest during the rainy season (March–June and October–December) and lowest during the dry seasons (July–September and January–February). The very low recovery of immature larvae of H. placei from the tracer calves indicated that arrested development is not a feature of the life cycle of this parasite in central Kenya. The maintenance of the parasite population depended on continuous cycling of infection between the host and the pasture. The agroclimatic conditions of the study area were such that, in general, favourable weather conditions for the development and survival of the free-living stages of gastrointestinal nematodes existed all year round.     

Diversity of Ectoparasites in Sheep Flocks in Sa~o Paulo,Brazil

The occurrence of ectoparasites in sheep flocks is frequently reported but seldom quantified. Sheep production used to be a predominantly family activity in the state of Sa~o Paulo (Brazil), but it began to become a commercial activity in the past decade. Thus, information about the ectoparasites existing in sheep flocks has become necessary. The present data were obtained by means of questionnaires sent to all sheep breeders belonging to the `Associaça~o Paulista de Criadores de Ovinos' (ASPACO; Sa~o Paulo State Association of Sheep Breeders). Response reliability was tested by means of random visits paid to 10.6% of the respondents. Most of the properties (89.5%) reported the presence of one or more ectoparasites. Screw-worm (Cochliomyia hominivorax) was the most frequent ectoparasite (72.5%), followed by bot fly larvae (Dermatobia hominis, 45.0%), ticks (Amblyomma cajennense) and Boophilus microplus, 31.3%) and finally lice (Damalinia ovis, 13.8%). Combined infestations also occurred, the most common one being screw-worm with bot fly larvae (36.0%) followed by bot fly larvae with ticks (13.9%), screw-worm with ticks (9.3%), bot fly larvae with lice (6.9%), and ticks with lice (5.0%). The most common triple combination was screw-worm, bot fly larvae and ticks (12.8%). Breeds raised for meat or wool were attacked by bot fly larvae and ticks more often than other breeds. Lice were only absent from animals of indigenous breeds. The relationships among these ectoparasites are discussed in terms of sheep breeds, flock size, seasonality and the ectoparasitic combinations on the host.     

A brief history of the prevention of infectious diseases by immunisations

Infectious diseases have always been a terrible scourge for humans. The appearance of these plagues, as they were called without distinction, was generally connected to various conditions: asters, climatic changes or religious reasons. The concept of contagious, and then infectious, diseases came slowly. Variolation, i.e. transmission of ‘virulent’ matter to induce a natural disease and the immunity against it, was brought from Constantinople to England by Lady Montague, in 1721. This ‘variolation’ technique was also often performed in veterinary medicine against diseases like sheep-pox or pleuropneumonia. As ‘vaccination’ is the term generally accepted for ‘immunisation’, variolation can be the word designating such a technique. The second period of the history of immunisation began, in 1880, with the studies of Pasteur and his collaborators. A great number of bacterial vaccines were developed: dead, live but attenuated or only parts of pathogens. The viruses were produced in animals, then in eggs and at last, in tissue cultures. Second generation vaccines appeared with genetic engineering: recombinant vaccines, vector vaccines, nucleic acids vaccines, and markers vaccines, among others. These novel technologies can permit the development of new ones and improve the quality of the vaccines already existing.