Spatial distribution of Trichinella britovi, T. spiralis and T. pseudospiralis of domestic pigs and wild boars (Sus scrofa) in Hungary

Trichinellosis is a foodborne disease caused by the consumption of raw meat and raw meat-derived products from swine, horse and some game animals infected with nematode worms of the genus Trichinella. Between June 2006 and February 2011, 16 million domestic pigs and 0.22 million wild boars (Sus scrofa) were tested for Trichinella sp. in Hungary. Trichinella infection was not found in any pigs slaughtered for public consumption. Nevertheless, Trichinella spiralis was detected in four backyard pigs when trace back was done following a family outbreak. Trichinella infection was demonstrated in 17 wild boars (0.0077%). Larvae from wild boars were identified as Trichinella britovi (64.7%), T. spiralis (29.4%) and Trichinella pseudospiralis (5.9%). Although the prevalence of Trichinella sp. infection in wild boars and domestic pigs is very low, the spatial analysis reveals that the level of risk differs by region in Hungary. Most of the T. britovi infected wild boars (63.6%) were shot in the north-eastern mountain area of Hungary; whereas domestic pigs and wild boars infected with T. spiralis were detected only in the southern counties bordering Croatia and Romania. In the north-western and central counties, the prevalence of Trichinella infection seems to be negligible.     

First reports of Trichinella pseudospiralis in wild boars (Sus scrofa) of Italy

Trichinella pseudospiralis is a non-encapsulated species infecting both mammals and birds. In Italy, this parasite was reported only in two night-birds of prey of Central Italy. In January 2010, Trichinella larvae were detected in three wild boars (Sus scrofa) of two regions of Northern Italy by enzymatic digestion. The parasites were identified as T. pseudospiralis by multiplex-PCR. The first infected wild boar was hunted in the Emilia Romagna region and the other two infected wild boars were bred outdoors in a small family farm of the Friuli Venezia Giulia region. These new epidemiological data reinforce the role of the wild boar as the main reservoir of T. pseudospiralis in Europe.     

Muscle distribution of sylvatic and domestic Trichinella larvae in production animals and wildlife

Only a few studies have compared the muscle distribution of the different Trichinella genotypes. In this study, data were obtained from a series of experimental infections in pigs, wild boars, foxes and horses, with the aim of evaluating the predilection sites of nine well-defined genotypes of Trichinella. Necropsy was performed at 5, 10, 20 and 40 weeks post inoculation. From all host species, corresponding muscles/muscle groups were examined by artificial digestion. In foxes where all Trichinella species established in high numbers, the encapsulating species were found primarily in the tongue, extremities and diaphragm, whereas the non-encapsulating species were found primarily in the diaphragm. In pigs and wild boars, only Trichinella spiralis, Trichinella pseudospiralis and Trichinella nelsoni showed extended persistency of muscle larvae (ML), but for all genotypes the tongue and the diaphragm were found to be predilection sites. This tendency was most obvious in light infections. In the horses, T. spiralis, Trichinella britovi, and T. pseudospiralis all established at high levels with predilection sites in the tongue, the masseter and the diaphragm. For all host species, high ML burdens appeared to be more evenly distributed with less obvious predilection than in light infections; predilection site muscles harbored a relatively higher percent of the larval burden in light infections than in heavy infections. This probably reflects increasing occupation of available muscle fibers as larger numbers of worms accumulate. Predilection sites appear to be influenced primarily by host species and secondarily by the age and level of infection.     

First record of Trichinella pseudospiralis in the Slovak Republic found in domestic focus

Infection of Trichinella spp. is widespread among wildlife in Slovakia and the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) is the main reservoir of Trichinella britovi. Trichinella spiralis has been rarely documented in sylvatic and domestic animals of this country. During routine examination of domestic pigs at the slaughter, Trichinella larvae were detected by artificial digestion in a domestic pig of a large-scale breeding farm in Eastern Slovakia. The parasite has been identified by molecular (PCR) and biochemical (allozymes) analyses and by the morphology of the nurse cell as the non-encapsulated species Trichinella pseudospiralis infecting both mammals and birds. The epidemiological investigation carried out at the farm level revealed the presence of the same parasite species in other three pigs of 192 examined (2.1%), in 3 of 14 (21.4%) examined synanthropic rats (Rattus norvegicus) and in a domestic cat. The farm was characterized by inadequate sanitary conditions, insufficient nutrition, cannibalism and the presence of rat population. A different profile has been observed at the phosphoglucomutase locus in T. pseudospiralis isolates from Slovakia in comparison with the T. pseudospiralis reference isolate from the Palearctic region. This is the first documented focus of T. pseudospiralis from Central Europe. The detection in domestic pigs of a non-encapsulated parasite infecting both mammals and birds stresses the need to avoid the use of trichinelloscopy to detect this infection at the slaughterhouse.     

Spatial distribution of Trichinella britovi, T. pseudospiralis and T. spiralis in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in Hungary

The red fox (Vulpes vulpes) is considered one of the main reservoir of Trichinella spp. in Europe. As limited information on Trichinella infection in wildlife of Hungary is available, 2116 red foxes, representing more than 3% of the estimated fox population of the country, were screened to detect Trichinella larvae by a digestion method. Trichinella larvae from the 35 positive foxes were identified by a multiplex PCR as Trichinella britovi (30 isolates, 85.7%), Trichinella spiralis (4 isolates, 11.4%), and Trichinella pseudospiralis (1 isolate, 2.9%). The true mean intensity of T. britovi, T. spiralis and T. pseudospiralis larvae in lower forelimb muscles was 23.6, 3.5 and 13.5larvae/g, respectively. T. spiralis was detected only in the southern and eastern regions. The non-encapsulated T. pseudospiralis was recorded for the first time in Hungary. Although the overall true prevalence of Trichinella infection in foxes was only 1.8% (95% confidence interval, CI=1.5-2.1%), the spatial analysis reveals different risk regions. In the north-eastern counties bordering Slovakia and Ukraine (21% of the Hungarian territory), the true prevalence of Trichinella infection is significantly higher than that observed in other regions (6.0%, CI=4.8-7.1%). In the southern counties bordering Croatia, Serbia and Romania (41% of the Hungarian territory), the true prevalence of Trichinella infection is moderate (1.4%, CI=1.0-1.8%). In the north-western and central counties (38% of Hungarian territory), the prevalence of Trichinella infection is significantly lower (0.2%, CI=0.1-0.4%) than that of the other regions. Based on the statistical analysis and the evaluation of epidemiological data, none of the counties can be considered free of Trichinella infection. In the past decade, Trichinella infection has been detected only in few backyard pigs, and only few wild boar-related autochthonous infections in humans were described. Nevertheless, these results highlight the need of the maintenance of a strict monitoring and control programmes on Trichinella infection in farmed and hunted animals of Hungary.     

Trichinella spiralis and Trichinella pseudospiralis mixed infection in a wild boar (Sus scrofa) of Germany

A wild boar (Sus scrofa) from the island Usedom in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania (north-east Germany) was detected as Trichinella-positive during routine meat inspection. Encapsulated and non-encapsulated larvae were detected in the muscle tissue by trichinoscopy. In the diaphragm, 922 larvae per g were detected by artificial digestion. Muscle larvae displayed two different sizes of about 700 and 1100 microm. By a multiplex PCR analysis, larvae with a large size were identified as Trichinella spiralis, whereas those of a smaller size were identified as Trichinella pseudospiralis. This is the first finding of a mixed infection of T. spiralis and T. pseudospiralis in a naturally infected animal and it supports the tendency of more frequent detection of the non-encapsulated species T. pseudospiralis in Europe.     

Real-time PCR as a surveillance tool for the detection of Trichinella infection in muscle samples from wildlife

Trichinella nematodes are the causative agent of trichinellosis, a meat-borne zoonosis acquired by consuming undercooked, infected meat. Although most human infections are sourced from the domestic environment, the majority of Trichinella parasites circulate in the natural environment in carnivorous and scavenging wildlife. Surveillance using reliable and accurate diagnostic tools to detect Trichinella parasites in wildlife hosts is necessary to evaluate the prevalence and risk of transmission from wildlife to humans. Real-time PCR assays have previously been developed for the detection of European Trichinella species in commercial pork and wild fox muscle samples. We have expanded on the use of real-time PCR in Trichinella detection by developing an improved extraction method and SYBR green assay that detects all known Trichinella species in muscle samples from a greater variety of wildlife. We simulated low-level Trichinella infections in wild pig, fox, saltwater crocodile, wild cat and a native Australian marsupial using Trichinella pseudospiralis or Trichinella papuae ethanol-fixed larvae. Trichinella-specific primers targeted a conserved region of the small subunit of the ribosomal RNA and were tested for specificity against host and other parasite genomic DNAs. The analytical sensitivity of the assay was at least 100 fg using pure genomic T. pseudospiralis DNA serially diluted in water. The diagnostic sensitivity of the assay was evaluated by spiking 10 g of each host muscle with T. pseudospiralis or T. papuae larvae at representative infections of 1.0, 0.5 and 0.1 larvae per gram, and shown to detect larvae at the lowest infection rate. A field sample evaluation on naturally infected muscle samples of wild pigs and Tasmanian devils showed complete agreement with the EU reference artificial digestion method (k-value=1.00). Positive amplification of mouse tissue experimentally infected with T. spiralis indicated the assay could also be used on encapsulated species in situ. This real-time PCR assay offers an alternative highly specific and sensitive diagnostic method for use in Trichinella wildlife surveillance and could be adapted to wildlife hosts of any region.     

First isolation of Trichinella britovi from a wild boar (Sus scrofa) in Belgium

Since 1992, when the European Union Council Directive requires that wild boars (Sus scrofa) hunted in EU for commercial purpose should be examined for Trichinella, the infection has not been detected in wild boars from Belgium, despite serological evidence of the presence of anti-Trichinella antibodies in wildlife and previous reports of Trichinella larvae in this host species. In November 2004, Trichinella larvae were detected in a wild boar hunted near Mettet, Namur province (Southern Belgium). Larvae were identified as Trichinella britovi by polymerase chain reaction methods. This is the first report of the identification of Trichinella larvae from Belgium at the species level. The detection of T. britovi in wildlife in Belgium is consistent with findings of this parasite in other European countries and confirms the need to test game meat for Trichinella to prevent its transmission to humans.     

The broad spectrum of Trichinella hosts: from cold- to warm-blooded animals

In recent years, studies on Trichinella have shown that the host range is wider than previously believed and new Trichinella species and genotypes have been described. Three classes of vertebrates are known to act as hosts, mammals, birds and reptiles, and infected vertebrates have been detected on all continents but Antarctica. Mammals represent the most important hosts and all Trichinella species are able to develop in this vertebrate class. Natural infections with Trichinella have been described in more than 150 mammalian species belonging to 12 orders (i.e., Marsupialia, Insectivora, Edentata, Chiroptera, Lagomorpha, Rodentia, Cetacea, Carnivora, Perissodactyla, Artiodactyla, Tylopoda and Primates). The epidemiology of the infection greatly varies by species relative to characteristics, such as diet, life span, distribution, behaviour, and relationships with humans. The non-encapsulated species Trichinella pseudospiralis, detected in both mammals (14 species) and birds (13 species), shows a cosmopolitan distribution with three distinguishable populations in the Palearctic, Nearctic and Australian regions. Two additional non-encapsulated species, Trichinella papuae, detected in wild pigs and saltwater crocodiles of Papua New Guinea, and Trichinella zimbabwensis, detected in farmed Nile crocodiles of Zimbabwe, can complete their life cycle in both mammals and reptiles. To the best of our knowledge, T. papuae and T. zimbabwensis are the only two parasites known to complete their entire life cycle independently of whether the host is warm-blooded or cold-blooded. This suggests that these two Trichinella species are capable of activating different physiological mechanisms, according to the specific vertebrate class hosting them.     

Epidemiology of trichinellosis in Asia and the Pacific Rim

The epidemiology of trichinellosis, species of Trichinella present and the food and eating habits of people affected in Asia and the Pacific Rim are reviewed with emphasis on Japan, China and Thailand. Trichinella seems to be prevalent throughout this region although outbreaks of trichinellosis have not been reported in some areas. Major outbreaks of the disease have been reported primarily in China and Thailand. This is the result of three factors: (1) China and Thailand are highly endemic areas for this parasite; (2) the two countries are well-organized and there is a public health system that enables precise reporting of disease outbreaks and (3) culinary habits provide many opportunities to eat undercooked meats. Trichinella found in Asia and the Pacific Rim includes both encapsulated species (Trichinella spiralis, Trichinella britovi, Trichinella nativa) and noncapsulated species (Trichinella pseudospiralis, Trichinella papuae). T. britovi, isolated in Japan, is a different genotype from the European strain. Therefore, the Japanese strain of T. britovi is designated Trichinella T9. Human trichinellosis caused by T. pseudospiralis has occurred in New Zealand and Thailand. Tasmania has had animal cases of T. pseudospiralis infection and animals with T. papuae infection have been found in Papua New Guinea. Economic losses due to Trichinella infection are not negligible in China, where there have been more than 500 outbreaks of human trichinellosis, affecting more than 20,000 people and causing more than 200 deaths. In Thailand, over the past 27 years, 120 outbreaks were reported involving nearly 6700 patients and 97 deaths. Japan has had fewer outbreaks and some sporadic cases have been attributed to imported infection.     

Long-term survey on Trichinella prevalence in wildlife of Slovakia

In Slovakia, monitoring the prevalence of Trichinella spp. in wildlife was performed since 2000 in the main reservoir animals, the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and wild boar (Sus scrofa), using artificial digestion method as recommended by International Commission on Trichinellosis. The results of investigation performed in 5270 red foxes showed that Trichinella infection is widespread across Slovakia and prevalence increased significantly from 4.9% in 2000 to 20.5% in 2007. Recently, a higher Trichinella prevalence (0.11%) in wild boars was also demonstrated. The results indicate that foxes and wild boars are involved in the spread of Trichinella, although the latter host species seems to play a secondary role in the maintenance of the sylvatic cycle in Slovakia. Trichinella britovi is the predominant species circulating in Slovakia, both in foxes and wild boars, and Trichinella spiralis occurs only sporadically. Mixed infections of T. britovi and Trichinella pseudospiralis were recorded in 2005 in one wild boar from Eastern Slovakia and in 2006 in one red fox from the same region. These findings are important with respect to an outbreak caused by T. pseudospiralis in a pig farm in the same district 3 years ago. This study provides a complex picture on Trichinella occurrence in all regions of Slovakia and may be a good basis for evaluating the risk of parasite transmission to the domestic cycle and human beings.     

Trichinella pseudospiralis from a wild pig in Texas

In December 2001, the routine inspection of a wild boar intended for human consumption revealed the presence of Trichinella ssp. larvae. Biological, morphological and genetic analyses demonstrated the parasite to be Trichinella pseudospiralis. This is the second report of T. pseudospiralis in the United States and the first report of the parasite in a food animal species in the U.S.     

Factors affecting the flow among domestic, synanthropic and sylvatic cycles of Trichinella

Nematodes of the genus Trichinella are maintained in nature by sylvatic or domestic cycles. The sylvatic cycle is widespread on all continents, from frigid to torrid zones, and it is maintained by cannibalism and scavenging behavior of carnivores. Trichinella is primarily a parasite of carnivorous mammals, although one non-encapsulated species, Trichinella pseudospiralis, has also been detected in birds. The anaerobic metabolism of larvae in nurse cells allows their survival in extremely decayed meat. Encapsulated larvae in the decomposing carcass function similarly to the species-dispersing population of eggs or larvae of other nematodes, suggesting that the natural cycle of Trichinella includes a free-living stage when the parasite is no longer protected by the homeothermy of the host. Consequently, environmental temperature and humidity play an important role in the transmission of Trichinella among wildlife. Of the 10 recognized genotypes of Trichinella, only Trichinella spiralis is transmitted and maintained in a domestic cycle, although it can be present also in wildlife. All other genotypes (Trichinella nativa, Trichinella britovi, T. pseudospiralis, Trichinella murrelli, Trichinella nelsoni and Trichinella papuae, Trichinella T6, T8, and T9) are transmitted and maintained only in a sylvatic cycle. This generalization does not preclude sylvatic species of Trichinella from invading the domestic habitat, and T. spiralis may return to this habitat when humans fail in the management of wildlife and domestic animals. However, the presence of sylvatic genotypes of Trichinella in the domestic habitat represents a "dead-end" for the sylvatic cycle. Synanthropic animals (rats, foxes, mustelids, cats, dogs, etc.) contribute to the flow of sylvatic Trichinella genotypes from wildlife to domestic animals and of T. spiralis from domestic to sylvatic animals. Furthermore, human behavior not only influences the transmission patterns of Trichinella genotypes in the domestic habitat, but also it can contribute to the transmission and spread of this infection among wildlife, for example by improper hunting practices.     

Prevalence of Trichinella spp. in red foxes and wild boars in the northwestern part of Poland

The aim of the study was to establish in which degree wild boars and red foxes are reservoir of Trichinella spp. in North-West Poland. Research was carried out between 1997 and 2004 on 505 foxes and 56,462 wild boars in muscle samples. The muscle samples were examined using the digestion method. The average prevalence rate of Trichinella spp. infection of foxes was 4.4 %. Large differences of the infection rate in wild boars were observed. In the years 1999-2001 Trichinella spp. larvae were observed in 58 animals (0.2 %) and between 2002 and 2004 the Trichinella spp. prevalence in 227 wild boars was 0.9 %, demonstrating that the animals were 5.1 times more often infected than in 1999-2001. The growth of red fox population after the oral vaccination against rabies was probably the cause of this phenomenon.     

Trichinella spiralis in wild boars (Sus scrofa)

During the period 1.7. 1972--31.6. 1977 muscle samples from 137 wild boars were examined for Trichinella spiralis. Larvae of T. spiralis were demonstrated in 4 animals. The major part (83) of the wild boars examined, including the 4 positive ones, originated from one particular game park. The rate of infection with T. spiralis in the game park concerned was 4.8%. Calculated on the basis of the total of animals examined, the rate of infection was 2.9%.     

The epidemiology of animal trichinellosis in China

The epidemiology of animal trichinellosis in China based mainly upon original Chinese literature published between 1937 and 2004 is reviewed. The seroprevalence of Trichinella infection in herbivores was 0.7% (2/300) in cattle and 0.8% (4/500) in sheep. The prevalence of trichinellosis in naturally infected cattle was 1.2% (2/163). Trichinella larvae were detected in 1.4% (3/215) of sheep and in 2.1% (1/47) of beef cattle sold at markets. Canine trichinellosis was recorded in 13 Provinces, Autonomous Regions or Municipalities (P/A/M) and the average prevalence of the infection in dogs slaughtered in abattoirs was 16.2% (5654/34,983) ranging from 1.2% to 44.8%, with the highest prevalence located in northeast China. The prevalence in dog meat sold at markets was 3.5% (988/27,898) in 5 P/A. Feline Trichinella infection was reported in 10 P/A/M. The prevalence of Trichinella infection in rats varied from 1.1% (51/459) to 15.1% (50/332). Trichinella larvae were detected in 1.5% (9/587) of house rats (Rattus norvegicus) as well as in 0.8% (3/369) of wild rats (Apodemus chevrieri), and the infection was recorded also in other wildlife (foxes, bears, wild boar, weasels, raccoon dogs, muntjak and bamboo rats). Trichinella larvae were detected in 2.6% (4/156) of weasels (Mustela sibirica), 1.5% (2/135) of shrews (Tupaia belangeri) and 7.7% (1/13) of moles (Parascapter leucurus). All Trichinella isolates from domestic pigs were identified as T. spiralis. Some Trichinella isolates from dogs in north-eastern China were identified as T. nativa, which has muscle larvae that are highly resistant to freezing. Twenty-seven outbreaks of human trichinellosis associated with mutton, dog and game meat occurred in China between 1964 and 2004, but the quarantine of Trichinella larvae in such meat is not mandatory in China at present.     

Inappropriate feeding practice favors the transmission of Trichinella papuae from wild pigs to saltwater crocodiles in Papua New Guinea

The recent discovery of Trichinella zimbabwensis in farmed crocodiles (Crocodilus niloticus) of Zimbabwe and its ability to infect mammals, and the development of both T. zimbabwensis and Trichinella papuae in experimentally infected reptiles led to an investigation of Trichinella infection in saltwater crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus) and in wild pigs (Sus scrofa) of Papua New Guinea, to see if T. papuae also, is present in both cold- and warm-blooded animals. Of 222 crocodiles examined, 47 animals (21.2%), all from Kikori, Gulf Province, were positive for non-encapsulated larvae in the muscles. The greatest number of larvae was found usually in the biceps, with an average of 7 larvae/g. One isolate from a crocodile infected successfully both laboratory rats and mice. Of 81 wild pigs examined, 9 from Bensbach river area (Western Province) and 1 from Kikori area (Gulf Province) were positive for non-encapsulated larvae in the muscles. Trichinella larvae from both saltwater crocodiles and wild pigs have been identified by multiplex-PCR analysis as T. papuae. The sequence analysis of the region within the large subunit ribosomal DNA, known as the expansion segment V, has shown the presence of a molecular marker distinguishing T. papuae isolates of Bensbach river area from those of Kikori area. This marker could be useful to trace back the geographical origin of the infected animal. The epidemiological investigation carried out in the Kikori area has shown that local people catch young crocodiles in the wild and keep them in holding pens for several months, before sending them to the crocodile farm in Lae (Morobe Province). They feed the crocodiles primarily with wild pig meat bought at the local market and also with fish. These results stress the importance of using artificial digestion for routinely screening of swine and crocodiles, and of adopting measures for preventing the spread of infection, such as the proper disposal of carcasses and the adequate freezing of meat.     

Differential detection of Trichinella papuae, T. spiralis and T. pseudospiralis by real-time fluorescence resonance energy transfer PCR and melting curve analysis

Trichinellosis caused by nematodes of Trichinella spp. is a zoonotic foodborne disease. Three Trichinella species of the parasite including Trichinella spiralis, Trichinella papuae and Trichinella pseudospiralis, have been etiologic agents of human trichinellosis in Thailand. Definite diagnosis of this helminthiasis is based on a finding of the Trichinella larva (e) in a muscle biopsy. The parasite species or genotype can be determined using molecular methods, e.g., polymerase chain reaction (PCR). This study has utilized real-time fluorescence resonance energy transfer PCR (real-time FRET PCR) and a melting curve analysis for the differential diagnosis of trichinellosis. Three common Trichinella species in Thailand were studied using one set of primers and fluorophore-labeled hybridization probes specific for the small subunit of the mitochondrial ribosomal RNA gene. Using fewer than 35 cycles as the cut-off for positivity and using different melting temperatures (T(m)), this assay detected T. spiralis, T. papuae and T. pseudospiralis in muscle tissue and found the mean T(m) ± SD values to be 51.79 ± 0.06, 66.09 ± 0.46 and 51.46 ± 0.09, respectively. The analytical sensitivity of the technique enabled the detection of a single Trichinella larva of each species, and the detection limit for the target DNA sequence was 16 copies of positive control plasmid. A test of the technique's analytical specificity showed no fluorescence signal for a panel of 19 non-Trichinella parasites or for human and mouse genomic DNA. Due to the sensitivity and specificity of the detection of these Trichinella species, as well as the fast and high-throughput nature of these tools, this method has application potential in differentiating non-encapsulated larvae of T. papuae from T. spiralis and T. pseudospiralis in tissues of infected humans and animals.     

Factors affecting seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in the endangered Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus)

Wild felids are considered important in maintaining the sylvatic cycle of Toxoplasma gondii. Although, T. gondii antibodies have been reported in several species of wild felids, little is known of the epidemiology and risk factors associated with T. gondii infection in wild cats. The Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) is the most endangered felid species in the world. In the present study, seroprevalence and associated risk factors for T. gondii infection in a large population of Iberian lynx in Spain were determined. Serum samples from 129 Iberian lynx collected from 2005 to 2009 and 85 wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), sharing the habitat with the Iberian lynx, were tested for antibodies to T. gondii by the modified agglutination test (MAT) using a cut-off value of 1:25. Antibodies to T. gondii were found in 81 of 129 (62.8%) Iberian lynx. Seroprevalence to T. gondii in Iberian lynx significantly increased with age (P < 0.001). T. gondii seroprevalences were similar in free-ranging (66.7% of 93) and wild-caught captive lynx (69% of 84) but significantly lower in captive-born lynx (22.5% of 40). Seroprevalence was higher in lynx with concurrent Cytauxzoonfelis (88% of 25) but not with concurrent Feline Leukemia Virus (FeLV) infection (53.8% of 13). There were no significant differences in seroprevalence between sexes, geographic region and year of sample collection (2005–2009). Oocysts of T. gondii were not detected microscopically in fecal samples from 58 lynx. Wild rabbits are considered the most important food for the lynx. Antibodies to T. gondii were found in 14 (11.9%) of 85 rabbits tested. The present results indicate that T. gondii infection is widespread in the two areas where Iberian lynx survive in Spain. The fact that four captive-born lynx seroconverted was indication of contact with T. gondii also in the Captive Breeding Centers, hence, control measures to prevent T. gondii infection would be necessary in these centers.     

Alaria alata mesocercariae in domestic pigs and wild boars in South Banat,northern Serbia

Alaria alata (Diplostomidae, Trematoda), a potentially zoonotic pathogen, is the only Alaria species in Europe. In recent years, increasing reports of mesocercariae of A. alata in wild boars have been recorded in European countries; however there have been no described cases in domestic pigs over the past decades. Out of 272 diaphragm samples from wild boars (Sus scrofa) and domestic pigs (Sus scrofa), from Serbia, included in the present investigations, mesocercariae of A. alata were found in six (3%) samples from wild boars and in two (2.77%) samples from domestic pigs. Due to the lack of sensitivity of artificial digestion with a magnetic stirrer which was applied in the study, the true prevalence is estimated to be considerably higher in the area of investigation. Confirming the infection in domestic pigs and a wide distribution in wild boars in the area of investigation, the present paper should influence the growing awareness of alariosis as a potential human disease. The meat from free-range domestic pigs and game meat as a potential source of alariosis should always be adequately thermally treated before consumption.