Meteorological variability of the wet and dry deposition of sulphur and nitrogen compounds over the baltic sea

The dry and wet deposition of N and S compounds to the Baltic Sea Basin were assessed using daily concentration measurements of air and precipitation concentrations, and actual meteorological data on precipitation, daily wind speed and wind direction, as well as the buoyant fluxes at the air- sea interface. The data cover the period 1980–86. Both concentrations and deposition levels show distinct south-north gradients and strong seasonal variability. Dry deposition is an important contribution in the case of S (25 to 80%) but is less significant for the N compounds (10 to 30%). The contribution of particles to dry deposition is negligible for S, equivalent to the gaseous contribution for oxidized N and about 10 to 20% for reduced nitrogen compounds. The obtained total annual deposition of about 1.4 to 1.8 g(S) m^?2 for the S compounds, and 1 g(N) m^?2 for the N compounds are comparable with, but on the upper side of, previous empirical and model estimates.     

Estimating uncertainty in the current critical loads exceedance models

The critical loads approach to quantifying areas at risk of damage requires deposition and critical loads data at the same spatial scale to calculate exceedance. While maps of critical loads for soil acidification are available at a 1 km scale no monitoring networks in Europe measure wet and dry inputs at this scale and, further, the models currently used to estimate deposition incorporate a number of assumptions which are not valid at the 1 km scale. Simulations of 1 km deposition from 20 km data show that the uncertainty introduced by using 20 km scale estimates of deposition is small, except in mountain areas where it can give misleading results, but a major problem is the uncertainty in estimates of deposition at the 20 km scale produced by the current models.     

1961－2014年中国干湿气候时空变化特征及成因分析

利用全国701个气象站点1961-2014年逐日地面观测资料,基于降水量和参考作物蒸散量(ET0)计算的湿润指数研究了近54a中国干湿气候时空变化特征,并利用敏感性和贡献率法分析了气候变化背景下主要气象因子对ET0的影响,对干湿气候变化的成因进行了探讨.结果表明:全国气候在3个时间段(时段1:1961-1980;时段2:1981-2000;时段3:2001-2014)中经历了变湿到变干的过程;不同地区干湿状况变化差异很大,干旱趋势主要发生在中国的半干旱半湿润气候区;1961-2014年降水量变化趋势不显著,ET0呈显著下降的趋势,61.6%的站点出现"蒸发悖论"现象.南方大部分地区和新疆的西北部由于降水量增加和ET0减少,气候变湿;西北和西南大部分地区由于年降水量减少和ET0增加,气候呈显著变干的趋势.ET0对相对湿度的变化最敏感,风速的负贡献率是引起ET0变化的主导因子.研究时段内风速和日照时数的减少对ET0的负效应超过温度上升对ET0的增大作用,导致全国ET0总体呈下降趋势.     

基于GIS的大别山区东段雨季降水空间分布模拟

区域降水量是重要的环境变量,区域降水量的研究对区域水资源合理规划与利用具有重要科学价值。依据大别山区东段及附近14个气象台站和8个气候考察站34a雨季降水和风向等气象资料,以及各站点的经纬度、坡向、海拔高度等地理信息,并引进"主风向效应指数",建立大别山区东段雨季降水分布模拟模型。利用GIS技术进行栅格数据的空间分析,模拟大别山区东段降水空间分布。模拟结果表明,(1)针对不同区域特点,适当增加有效的地形和气象因子参与插值,可以提高山区降水模拟精度,大别山区东段雨季的逐月、夏季和雨季降水空间分布模拟相对误差均小于10%;(2)大别山区东段南北坡雨量分布具有明显的时空变化,边界层山地的扰动作用对降水量分布影响明显,雨量的南北坡的季节变化与大气环流的季节变化一致。     

Measurements of precipitation composition at UK EMEP sites 1987–1992 and comparison with the HARM model

Precipitation composition has been measured daily at five UK EMEP sites since 1987. Sulphur dioxide and sulphate aerosol concentrations are also measured daily at the sites. Back trajectories and wind sectors calculated by the Norwegian Meteorological Institute have been used to characterise the variation in wet deposition in terms of air mass source. Contributions to wet deposition from various source regions have been estimated for Eskdalemuir. Observations from the EMEP sites have been compared with output from the Hull Acid Rain Model (HARM). HARM is a Lagrangian model using simplified meteorology but straight-line trajectories. Results are compared on a site-by-site and sector-by-sector basis and the model reproduces the general features of pollutant concentration and wet deposition indicated by the measurements. The possible effects of future reductions in emissions of SO₂ and NOx on precipitation concentrations by wind sector are described.     

Acid Deposition and Critical Load Map of Tokyo

Acid deposition has been monitored in the natural vegetation of the western part of Tokyo, especially in the Okutama Mountains and surrounding areas. However, it is difficult to grasp the condition of acid deposition and the possible impacts on the vegetation in the whole area. Therefore, we attempted to make gridded acidic deposition maps and critical load maps. The grid size was 30 seconds latitude and 45 seconds longitude. Monthly wet deposition in the fiscal year of 1997 was calculated by multiplying concentration of wet deposition and precipitation. Concentration of wet deposition was estimated by averaging the data monitored at the nearest three stations with the inverse of distance as the weight. Precipitation was estimated by step-wise multiple regression with geographical factors as explanatory variables. Critical loads were estimated using the steady-state mass balance model with some modifications. As result, it was found that sulfur deposition had exceeded in most of the western part of Tokyo.     

Integrated Assessment of Soil Chemical Status. 1. Integration of Existing Models and Derivation of a Regional Database for Switzerland

A regional soil acidification model was developed by integration and adaptation of existing models. The regional model consists of the dynamic multi-layer soil chemistry model SAFE, its steady-state version INITSAFE, the atmospheric deposition and nutrient uptake reconstruction model MAKEDEP, and a routine with empirical relations concerning depth-dependent parameters. A scheme for the extraction of input to the regional model from available information of different geographical detail also was developed. Basic data sources considered were: 1) national surveys such as the National Forest Inventory, covering site specific information, 2) available point measurements of parameter values, and 3) literature sources. Not all parameters were available on a regional scale with sufficient resolution. Input required for the model calculations therefore was derived from the available data sources by means of transfer algorithms including spatial interpolation. Interpolation was done allocating parameter values determined at reference sites to conventionally mapped entities such as geological units, soil type, and other kinds of geographical information. The exercise resulted in a data base of the required 68 site-specific parameter values covering climatic, deposition and land use parameters, as well as stand characteristics and soil properties.     

Deposition and Critical Loads of Nitrogen in Switzerland

Many ecosystems in Switzerland suffer from eutrophication due to increased atmospheric nitrogen (N) input. In order to get an overview of the problem, critical loads for nutrient N were mapped with a resolution of 1×1 km applying two methods recommended by the UN/ECE: the steady state mass balance method for productive forests, and the empirical method for semi-natural vegetation, such as natural forests, (sub-)alpine or species-rich grassland and raised bogs. The national forest inventory and a detailed atlas of vegetation types were used to identify the areas sensitive to N input. The total N input was calculated as the sum of NO₃ ^?, NH₄ ⁺, NH₃, NO₂ and HNO₃ wet and dry deposition. Wet deposition was determined on the basis of a precipitation map and concentration measurements. Dry deposition was calculated with inferential methods including land-use specific deposition velocities. The concentration fields for NH₃ and NO₂ were obtained from emission inventories combined with dispersion models. Reduced N compounds account for 63% of total deposition in Switzerland. As indicated by exceeded critical loads, the highest risk for harmful effects of N deposition (decrease of ecosystem stability, species shift and losses) is expected on forests and raised bogs in the lowlands, where local emissions are intense. At high altitudes and in dry inner-alpine valleys, deposition rates are significantly lower.     

基于TRMM 3B43数据的川西高原月降水量空间降尺度模拟

利用2001-2013年TRMM 3B43、MODIS-NDVI、DEM、气象观测等数据,在分析植被对降水响应滞后性的基础上,构建了TRMM 3B43数据中月降水量与经纬度、海拔、坡向和NDVI因子间的多元线性回归方程式,作为川西高原月降水量资料的降尺度计算模型,采用“回归方程+残差”的插值方法获取研究区2001-2013年1km空间分辨率的月降水量空间数据,并利用区内16个气象站点的观测数据与模拟结果进行了相关分析和误差检验。结果表明：（1）各气象观测站点基于TRMM 3B43资料的降尺度模拟降水量的数据均具有很高的精度,其中,精度最高的稻城站模拟结果与站点观测值的相关系数高达0.9839,精度最低的小金站相关系数亦高达0.8781;（2）在月、年尺度上,降尺度模拟降水量的数据亦具有很高的精度,其中,5-10月的精度明显高于其它月份,湿润年份精度总体高于干旱年份;（3）降尺度模拟降水量与站点实测降水量整体上相关系数为0.9499,偏差为0.0866,两者吻合度较高,但降尺度模拟降水量值略偏高;（4）降尺度在月尺度上能基本保证TRMM 3B43原始数据的精度,而在年尺度上能有效提高原始数据的精度,加之对空间分辨率的提高,可为获得更加全面、精细的降水分布数据提供有效方法。     

安徽省降水量空间插值研究

高分辨率、栅格化的气候数据作为环境因子是地学模型和气候模型等相关研究的重要参数,而空间插值是获取降水量空间信息的重要途径。然而在众多空间插值方法中,并没有绝对最优的空间插值方法,只有特定条件下的最优方法。采用安徽省境内的66个气象站点及周边75个气象站点的年降水量数据,选取常用的6种空间插值方法对安徽省年降水量进行了空间化,综合分析得出安徽省降水量的空间插值方法误差顺序为:RBF＜IDW＜Kriging＜Cokriging＜LP＜GP。     

复杂地形下TRMM降水数据的降尺度研究：以四川省为例

TRMM数据是目前应用最广泛的卫星降水产品,其准确性已得到广泛验证和认可。但其相对较低的空间分辨率制约和阻碍了在各领域的进一步应用。本研究以降水空间分异显著的四川省为例,在综合考虑空间位置、地形等多个影响因素及其空间非平稳性特征的基础上,采用混合地理加权回归（MGWR）与克里格插值（Kriging）相结合的方法,建立一个兼顾多因素空间非平稳性特征的降尺度模型（MGWRK）,对研究区域的TRMM年降水数据进行降尺度研究,并通过41个气象站点的实测数据对不同降尺度方法的结果进行对比验证。结果表明：（1）经过降尺度处理后,TRMM降水数据的空间分辨率从0.25°（约26km）提升至1km,数据的精细程度有了明显提升;（2）MGWRK模型综合运用了空间位置、地形等多个高分辨率的辅助信息,并进一步探究了不同影响因素对TRMM降水影响关系的空间非平稳性类型与特征。从多年平均及两个典型年份的验证结果看,MGWRK法比传统的重采样方法Bilinear法及基于OLS的全局回归克里格法具有更高的精度,降尺度结果的精度更接近TRMM原始数据;（3）构建的降尺度模型兼顾了提升空间分辨率和保持数据精确度两方面的要求,适用于四川省TRMM降水数据的降尺度研究,可为TRMM数据在小尺度的应用研究提供有效的数据支持。     

Dry deposition loading of Lake Michigan by airborne particulate matter

A transport model as a function of particle size is presented which couples Chicago area meteorological data through the mixed layer with laboratory and field data on water surface dry deposition. The model is used to (a) estimate a minimum mass transfer efficiency by dry deposition from the Chicago area to Lake Michigan, (b) compare this minimum with the maximum wet deposition likely, and (c) estimate the transfer efficiency of trace metals. Dry deposition is found to cause 15% or more mass transfer efficiency of aerosols to the Lake. This value is considered to be equal to or greater than the efficiency of precipitation scavenging mass transfer. However, dry deposition as a function of particle size is such that the transfer of trace metals by this mechanism appears to be a few percent or less. Consequently, precipitation scavenging appears to be the dominant mechanism for trace metal transfer to Lake Michigan.     

A Numerical Simulation of Acid Deposition in East Asia

The goal of the present study is to do a long term simulation and to derive a source receptor-relation using a comprehensive Eulerian acid deposition model coupled with a dynamic meteorological model. The selected modeling period is from March 1 to April 30, 1996. A dynamic meteorological model named MM5 was first used to calculate meteorological fields and then STEM preprocessors were invoked to generate dry deposition velocities and eddy diffusivities. Finally, a multi-scale STEM was applied to simulate both wet and dry acid deposition phenomena. The source-receptor relations were also estimated for sulfate and nitrate species using a counter species method. The model results for SO₂ and O₃ agree very well with measurements. However the model under-predicts the NO₂ concentration due to insufficient grid resolution as well as due to inaccurate field measurement. The transport contribution for total mass and wet deposition is much larger than that of dry deposition.     

Modeling atmospheric effects — An assessment of the problems

Our ability to simulate atmospheric processes that affect the life cycle of pollution is reviewed. The transport process is considered on three scales: (a) the near-source or single-plume dispersion problem, (b) the multiple-source dispersion problem, and (c) the long-range transport. Modeling the first of these is shown to be well within the capability of generally available techniques, although determining the input parameters is often difficult. The second scale has been well studied within the context of urban diffusion and is a very productive area of current research. Finally, long range transport is treated mainly as a meteorological problem. The state of the art in modeling the various meteorological processes is reviewed. Removal of pollutants is discussed in the form of both dry deposition and precipitation scavenging. It is suggested that dry removal is especially effective in forested areas, and that the forests may enhance accumulation of pollutants. An approximate transport model is developed which is used to calculate the ambient concentration of SO₂ throughout the United States. Associated calculations include dry deposition and the ratio of dry to wet removal for each State of the contiguous United States.     

近50年半干旱典型草原区域不同时间尺度上的降水、径流研究

以内蒙古锡林河流域典型草原区域为研究区,采用1963—2015年气温、相对湿度、降水量、风速、日照时数、蒸发量、径流日数据,应用统计分析、趋势检验和Spearman相关分析等方法对研究区区域7项水文气象要素的平均最高值、平均值、平均最低值突变前后变化及突变后停滞特征进行了分析,结果表明;（1）内蒙古锡林河流域典型草原区域的降水量最大月（7月）与径流量最大月（4月）不同,降水天数明显小于径流天数,且降水量远大于径流深,多年丰水季降水总量近似于枯水季的3倍,而多年枯水季径流总量是丰水季的2倍;（2）径流量多年来呈现显著减少的趋势,而降水的整体变化趋势不太明显,存在1998—2011年处于由丰变枯阶段,2011年后有由枯转丰的迹象;（3）年、丰水季、枯水季径流发生突变年份均为2004,同一时期发生突变,年、枯水季径流天数发生突变年份为2007年、2004年,丰水季在此期间未发生突变;（4）该区年径流天数枯水季所占比例居多,径流量年、丰、枯水季突变年限一致,造成突变的驱动因数接近,枯水季径流天数相对于年径流天数突变年份较早,枯水季对引起突变的驱动因数更为敏感;（5）影响该区降水大小的主要气象因素依次为日照时数 > 相对湿度 > 平均风速 > 平均气温 > 降水量=蒸发,影响该区径流大小的主要气象因素依次为蒸发 > 相对湿度 > 平均风速 > 平均气温=降水量 > 日照时数。     

An analysis of wet deposition of sulfate using a trajectory model for East Asia

A long-range transport model for East Asia was developed to estimate the wet deposition of sulfate. The model is a trajectory type which is appropriate for long-term analysis. Trajectories of air masses are calculated by tracing the wind field which changes spatially and temporally. The processes of reactions, rainout removal, intake of sulfate in cloud water into rain water, and dry and wet depositions are considered. It is possible to calculate the concentration of sulfate in precipitation at a receptor by performing material balance in a grid box containing the receptor.The results obtained by the long-range transport model were evaluated through comparison with observation data of acidic deposition. The observation was conducted at 21 stations throughout Japan for one year. The calculated amount of wet deposition of sulfate in Japan was 0.22Tg/y in S equivalent, while the observed amount was 0.29Tg/y. The long-range transport model can predict almost 80% of observed wet deposition. The contributions of domestic anthropogenic sources and volcanic eruption to wet deposition of sulfate in Japan were estimated using the longrange transport model. The ratio of the deposition of sulfate due to Japanese anthropogenic sources to that due to the Asian continental sources was about 1 to 2. Since air stream from the direction of the Asian continent dominates during winter, the contribution of Japan to wet deposition in the region which faces the Sea of Japan amounted to less than 15%. The contribution of the sulfur oxides from volcanoes was about 20%.     

中国降雨侵蚀力的时空分布及重现期研究

降雨侵蚀力是土壤侵蚀模型USLE的一个重要因子。基于中国中东部水蚀区18个气象站1961(1971)-2000年逐分钟降水数据和全国范围内774个气象站1961-2016年逐日降水数据,采用克里金插值方法,得到全国多年平均年、多年平均24个半月、不同重现期年和次侵蚀力空间分布特征,可满足USLE模型对侵蚀力因子相关参数输入的要求。交叉验证结果表明:以上所有指标的空间插值模型精度较好,模型有效系数NSE不低于0.74,偏差百分比PBIAS低于1%,均方根误差与观测值标准差的比值RSR小于等于0.51。侵蚀力年内变化曲线具有较好的区域相似性,使用K均值聚类分析方法将中国侵蚀力年内变化特征划分为4个区域,每个区域概化出一条侵蚀力年内变化曲线。     

汉江流域日降水多种小波分解与重构及其时空分布

将汉江流域55个气象站点1981年的日降水数据作为随机信号,借助于小波分析时间变化特征,利用Haar等7种小波函数分解日降水信号,采用Kriging空间内插方法把分解得到的小波系数空间离散化,在每个100 m×100 m栅格上进行小波的重构,从而实现随机性较高的日降水信息的时空降尺度,以期得到较为准确的日降水时空数据集.利用该流域另外45个气象站点1981年的日降水数据进行时空模拟结果的验证.通过平均误差等指标的定量评估.结果表明,采用Haar小波母函数对日降水信号进行分解与重构能够最准确地表达日降水的时空变化特征,更能充分表达日降水的高度随机性本质特征.     

Variability,Uncertainty, and Sensitivity of Phosphorus Deposition Load Estimates in South Florida

Atmospheric deposition, a substantial source of phosphorus (P) to the Florida Everglades, has been measured on a weekly basis in South Florida since 1974, but P measurements are highly variable due to random noise in the data. This study applies statistical approaches that calculatethe variability and uncertainty of the P load estimation model based on wet and dry P concentrations and rainfall volume.The average mean and standard deviation of the estimated P deposition rates for 13 sites in South Florida are 41±33 mg P m^-2 yr^-1. First order analysis of the random and measurement errors in the input variables produces a propagation error estimate in P load calculation. The atmospheric P deposition load shows high spatial and temporal variability with no consistent long-term trends. Because of the random noisy nature of P deposition, estimated P deposition loads have a significant amount of uncertainty no matter what type of collection instrument is used. Thus, duplicate sampling is highly recommended to increase the amount of uncontaminated data.