Uniaxial compression of rotationally symmetric Norway spruce samples: surface deformation and size effect

The influence of size on strength is well known for various materials and testing methods, but not enough data and knowledge of the effect on wood under compressive strength can be found. Therefore, the deformation and compressive strength of hyperboloid Norway spruce samples were tested for different dimensions. To determine the influence of size on the strength, three different approaches were used: “weakest link theory”, “size effect law” and “multifractal scaling law”. Of the three scaling theories, the “size effect law” and the “weakest link theory” predicted the effect well. Additionally, to determine the surface deformation of various samples, DIC3D was used on the largest sample geometry. The experiments show the existence of a possible size effect during compression, while digital image correlation illustrates the expected differences in deformation due to the shape and dependence of the strain distribution on the structure of wood. Additional experiments are proposed to further verify the observed effects and expand the knowledge of the size effect.     

A model to predict productivity of different chipping operations

The chipping operation is an important component of harvesting systems producing biomass and pulp chips. This paper aimed to develop a valid model to predict the productivity of chipping as part of these operations. Over a number of years more than 200 different time studies were conducted on chipping operations in Italy and Australia. Multiple regressions and backward stepwise data analysis methods were applied to develop a productivity prediction equation, considering the following variables: machine power (kW), piece size (m³), crew size, harvesting method, species, tree part, wood condition, wood lay-out, chipping type, propulsion, feeding method, point of chipping, season, location of chip discharge, country (Italy or Australia) and type of operation (biomass chip operation or pulp chip operation). The final productivity model included machine power, average piece size, location of chip discharge and type of operation as significant variables. The internal validation test was conducted using five witness samples from Italy and Australia, which confirmed the validity at α=0.05. Additional international case studies from North America, South America, and central and northern Europe were used to test the accuracy of the model, in which 15 studies confirmed the model's validity and two failed to pass the test.     

Wood Extraction with Farm Tractor and Sulky: Estimating Productivity, Cost and Energy Consumption

A winch and a sulky can transform a farm tractor into an effective small-scale logging machine, closely resembling a wheeled cable skidder. The additional cost of these implements is very small, but they offer significant benefits when extracting timber under the conditions of small-scale forestry. The authors developed a productivity model for skidding timber with wheeled farm tractors, equipped with winch and sulky. The origin data pool contained over 300 individual skidding cycles, extracted from 8 separate tests. Statistical analysis of the data allowed calculating a simple mathematical relationship for estimating skidding productivity as a function of significant work conditions, such as: piece size, winching distance, tractor power, skidding distance and crew size. This model can provide useful directions to prospective users, contributing to operation planning, costing and optimization. It can predict a large proportion of the variability in the data and was successfully validated using reserved cycle records, extracted from the same data pool and not used for model development. Depending on tractor power and piece size, the average turn volume and productivity can exceed respectively 2 m³ per cycle and 4 m³ per Scheduled Machine Hour (SMH). Top performance can reach 8 m³ SMH⁻¹, with heavy tractors and large logs.     

Pitfall or priority drift? Participatory tree domestication programs: The case of agroforestry in the Peruvian Amazon

ABSTRACT

The Agroforestry Tree Domestication Program was globally launched in the 1990s by the World Agroforestry Center to increase farmers’ living standards and slow deforestation. After 20 yr of operation, we screen the impacts on farmers’ livelihoods and prospects in one of the implementation sites: the Ucayali region of the Peruvian Amazon. We contrast the viewpoints of two sets of stakeholders: (a) “outsiders”—scientists, technicians, and development workers; and (2) “insiders”—local farmers organized and not organized. Group and semistructured interviews were used for data collection, and system analyses were conducted for their integration and interpretation. Results diverge by subset. “Outsiders” praised the program lastingness but questioned its dependence on external parties for management; they considered land property and product marketing keys to persist and succeed. In contrast, “insiders” considered the program financially not viable as well as third-party and locally dependent. As an alternative they had initiated activities, both forestry related and otherwise, to profit from their acquired technical and managerial skills. Based on these findings, broadening stakeholders’ diversity and set conveniently roles and decision power during the rationale and implementation phases of similar initiatives could prevent such divergences.     

竹材旋切的数学模型建立与理论分析

【目的】为加工出等厚连续的整张竹单板,减小竹材无卡轴旋切机加工竹材选取的局限性,扩大旋切设备的应用范围,提高竹材旋切的整体出材率和成品率,提出一种以"对数螺旋线"为基础的新型旋切曲线数学模型,并计算竹单板的理论出材率,分析讨论所建立模型是否适用于无卡轴竹材旋切机的使用。【方法】对旋切机2种旋切曲线进行数学建模,利用Matlab软件对传统无卡轴旋切理论"阿基米德螺旋线"的数学模型及改进的旋切曲线数学模型(呈椭圆形的"对数螺旋线"旋切曲线)进行仿真分析,建立待加工竹材段的三维模型,结合Matlab仿真结果,对竹材旋切出材率公式进行推导。【结果】通过Matlab仿真结果可知,"阿基米德螺旋线"为圆形螺旋线,由于竹材横截面不规则且近似为椭圆形,壁薄,旋成圆形后,竹材壁厚加工余量小,圆形螺旋线旋切曲线并不完全适用于加工自然生长的竹材,存在加工竹单板易碎、形状不整等缺陷;改进后的"对数螺旋线"旋切曲线呈椭圆形,旋切曲线贴近竹材实际形状,可以保证相邻螺旋线距离误差精确度在许可范围内,模型更加适用于竹单板旋切。数学模型参数可以根据竹材内外径大小实时调整,缩小竹材选取局限性。对推导出的出材率数学模型进行分析,得出竹材的材率η与竹段长度L无关,但应注意长度、壁厚和尖削度的相互影响。【结论】改进后的旋切曲线数学模型以"对数螺旋线"为基础,在旋切竹材时单板厚度误差小,旋切效率更高,具有很高的可靠性和加工精度。在满足加工要求的前提下,为保证竹材出材率、旋切效率、旋切质量等具体要求,加工竹段长度L应在0.8～1 m,竹材壁厚大于10 mm,尖削度小于3～4 mm·m^-1。新的旋切模型的建立可提升竹材的整体利用率,拓宽加工范围,为竹材旋切设备设计提供基础理论,对无卡轴竹材旋切加工提出一个新的发展方向。     

破坏植物资源犯罪中违法性认识问题案例探析

破坏植物资源犯罪属于法定犯的范畴,基于“知法推定”立场的违法性认识不要说观点已难以适用。对于违法性认识定位问题,我国学界和大陆法系国家都存在“故意说”与“责任说”的分歧。由于故意说存在逻辑和体系上的缺陷,将违法性认识作为责任要素更为合理。在破坏植物资源犯罪的司法实践中,建议将违法性认识作为责任阻却事由进行考察。考虑到违法性认识在证明中的困难,实践中建议采用违法性认识可能性,即违法性认识错误的可避免性作为判断标准。对于违法性认识错误不可避免性的认定须具备两点,即行为人对破坏植物资源行为的违法性存在认识困难以及为避免错误,行为人曾努力查明法律。     

The Mycorrhizal Requirement of the South African Forest Nursery

To achieve smoother and faster handling of timber has always been an important aim for designers of hydraulic loaders on forestry vehicles. Such loaders normally have “open-centre” hydraulic valve assemblies, in which the valves are open and oil flows freely through them when their control levers are in the neutral position.

Control systems of this kind require skilled manipulation if even three of the loader's six basic movements are to be operated together, and the continuous physical and mental strain on the operator is high. Yet timber handling takes up a major part of every forestry vehicle's life.

The article describes a new load-sensing and pressure-compensated system with proportional control—the “ERGO” system—which enables more loader movements to be handled simultaneously, resulting in greater ease and speed of handling, less operator fatigue and a closer bond between man and machine.     

Consumer value dimensions for sustainable wood products: results from the Finnish retail sector

Our study focuses on exploring on the dimensionality of sustainability in perceived consumer value regarding wooden products in the Finnish context. Factors affecting consumer value on sustainability were derived from the literature on sustainable consumption and tested on a specific case of wooden terrace products through a developed survey instrument. The dimensions of sustainability-based consumer value were identified using a factor analysis on data consisting of 208 responses collected in the home and building material retail sector in May–June 2013. Four-dimensional structure for consumer value concerning sustainable and responsible wooden products is identified to consist of “Information and product origin,” “Consumer activity,” “Product image,” and “Quality.” The first two, sustainability-related factors were more strongly valued by elderly as well as by female respondents, while “Quality” and “Image” were more preferred by young and middle-aged respondent groups. As for the conclusion, our results suggest that improving the sustainability information content, launching awareness campaigns and environmental education as well as applying greenness as a complementary product attribute would be some of the solutions to attract larger consumer groups.     

明月山风景区月文化景观特征剖析

分析月文化的内涵,主要包括“神性”、“人性”和“物性”3方面。对明月山景观资源进行调查和分析,认为明月山月文化的景观主要体现在“神性”月文化和“人性”月文化景观2方面,“物性”月文化景观几乎处于空白。基于此,对月文化景观的不足和进一步开发方案提出了建议。     

Attract,reward and disrupt: responses of pests and natural enemies to combinations of habitat manipulation and semiochemicals in organic apple

The widespread use of pesticides along with the simplification of the landscape has had undesirable effects on agroecosystems, such as the loss of biodiversity and the associated ecosystem service biological control. How current production systems can be remodelled to allow for a re-establishment of biological pest control, while preserving productivity, is a major challenge. Here, we tested whether a combination of tools could augment or synergize biological control of insect pests in apple (Malus domestica), comprised of a tortricid pest complex, a geometrid pest complex and the rosy apple aphid. The tools aimed at disrupting mating behaviour of multiple pest species (multispecies mating disruption, “Disrupt”, MMD), attracting natural enemies (a blend of herbivory-induced volatiles, “Attract”, A), or providing refuge and rewards for a diverse insect community (perennial flower strip, “Reward”, R) over a 3-year period. Suction samples were consistently richer in generalist predators but not in parasitoids when multiple tools including MMD?+?A?+?R or MMD?+?A were employed. In addition, lepidopteran pest levels were significantly lower in these plots than in MMD or MMD?+?R at the end of the 3-year experiment. This was, however, not reflected in survival of artificially established aphid colonies. Our data indicates that multiple, complementary tools can greatly enhance natural enemy level, but also that long-term implementation is needed to fully realize the augmentatory or synergistic potential of complementary components and restore biological control as an ecosystem service of practical relevance.

     

Market impacts of hypothetical fuel treatment thinning programs on federal lands in the western United States

This paper addresses the economics of forest fuel thinning programs on federal lands in the U.S. West, and presents a model of regional timber and product market impacts. The issue of economics is vital to the debate about fire management, and this paper presents market implications of two alternative silvicultural strategies, even-aged and uneven-aged thinning. Projections are based on a regional market model called FTM—West (Fuel Treatment Market model—West), which uses the method of price-endogenous linear programming to project annual market equilibria for softwood timber and wood products in the western United States from 1997 to 2020. The model takes into account variability in tree and log size, as well as economic effects of variable size class on harvest costs, log value, product recovery and mill capacity. Results show large potential market impacts from expanded thinning on federal lands, but impacts vary by silvicultural regime due to differences in size–class distributions of trees available under different thinning regimes. A hypothetical even-aged thinning program (“thin-from-below” strategy) results in net negative market welfare over the projection period (2005–2020), while a hypothetical uneven-aged thinning program (thinning based on stand density index) results in positive net market welfare. Net welfare results are the same over a range of different subsidy and administrative fee assumptions. An implication is that even-aged thinning regimes on federal lands in the U.S. West are less economical and therefore will be less effective.     

中国与“一带一路”沿线国家木质林产品贸易升级影响因素分析

文中基于2013—2018年相关数据,运用时变随机前沿引力模型,对中国与“一带一路”沿线国家木质林产品贸易规模及贸易效率的影响因素进行实证分析发现:在贸易规模层面,沿线国家人均GDP与人口规模起到正向的促进作用,空间距离以及贸易伙伴国是否为发达国家产生负向的阻碍作用;在贸易效率层面,“政策沟通”和“设施联通”对中国木质林产品贸易效率升级产生了显著的促进作用,“贸易畅通”和“民心相通”因其建设的长期性和复杂性,制约了中国木质林产品国际贸易效率的提升。据此,从巩固“设施联通”和“贸易畅通”的建设成果、积极推动中国林产工业转型、提升对“民心相通”建设重要性及长期性的认识等方面提出相应对策建议。     

Factors affecting forwarder productivity

Modern forwarders are an effective extraction option for timber harvesting operations that provide the opportunity for higher levels of mechanization. With their ability to carry logs from the forest to the roadside or processing areas, they have an established lower environmental impact in comparison to tree-length skidding options. However, little is published regarding their productivity potential or the factors that influence productivity. Three case studies were carried out; (1) a selective harvest in Calabria, Italy, with a smaller 12 t capacity John Deere 1110E, (2) a clear-cut on the West Coast of New Zealand, with a larger 19 t capacity John Deere 1910E and (3) a larger clear-cut operation in Canterbury, New Zealand, with two John Deere 1910E forwarders. An elemental time and motion study was used resulting in 73.4 h of detailed data, with 159 cycles extracting 2241 m³ of timber. Productivity models were created for all three sites as well as one combined model. Average cycle time was 33.2, 24.2 and 22.8 min, and average productivity 24.6, 37.1 and 42.7 t per productive machine hour, respectively. Cycle time was the fastest, and consequently productivity the highest, at the Canterbury site where the terrain roughness was low, overcoming any effect of the average small piece size (0.59 m³). Travel speed was slowest at the West Coast site showing the effect of wet and difficult terrain, with travel empty speed being just 3.8 km/h, compared to 6.7 and 6.9 km/h at the other two sites. Productivity at the two clear-cut operations was significantly higher than the selective cut, compounded by the use of the larger capacity forwarders. Distance and payload were significant factors for each cycle time model; in the combined model the sites were also significant. The calculated unit cost of forwarder extraction in the sites ranged from €2.55 to €4.70/m³. For regions such as southern Italy that have relatively low levels of forest mechanization, this information can be used to help design and improve more traditional labor-intensive harvesting systems.     

Multiple‐use characteristics of Norwegian clearcuts: Using aerial photographs to digitize in three dimensions

Using aerial photographs and a PC (personal computer) based photogrammetric instrument, the author measured landscape features to characterize clearcuts in a “multiple‐use” forest of the outskirts of Oslo, Norway. One hundred and forty‐six clearcuts were examined for area and non‐timber features (such as buffer dimensions and residual vegetation). The results of three dimensional digitized data—captured directly off the stereophotos—created the profiles of clearcuts on private and public land. In addition, the application of PC‐based photogrammetry to natural resource management is discussed.     

祥丰牡丹经济效益评价

【目的】对祥丰牡丹的价值、市场需求和前景发展进行分析,为引种推广该新品种提供参考,以促进祥丰牡丹与油用牡丹企业健康发展,保障油用牡丹产业可持续发展。【方法】在借鉴油茶、土地整理等领域经济效益评价研究的基础上,基于频度分析法和专家咨询法构建油用牡丹品种经济效益评价指标体系,包括单位面积产量、单位面积收益、田间管理费用、投资回收年限和种植农户人均收入增加率5个评价指标。利用AHP(层次分析法)结合Yaahp11.1软件确定指标权重,运用模糊综合评价法建立评价模型。以凤丹牡丹为对照,对祥丰牡丹和凤丹牡丹的经济效益进行对比分析。【结果】祥丰牡丹经济效益评价结果为"好",凤丹牡丹经济效益评价结果为"一般"。单位面积产量上,祥丰牡丹比凤丹牡丹产量提高近750 kg·hm^-2,提升126.84%;单位面积收益上,祥丰牡丹因产量提升,平均收益提高约22 500元·hm^-2;田间管理费用上,祥丰牡丹的表现略低于凤丹牡丹;投资回收年限上,祥丰牡丹可在种植后第3年实现收支平衡,早于凤丹牡丹1年。祥丰牡丹新品种在经济效益方面优于凤丹牡丹。【结论】相较于凤丹牡丹,祥丰牡丹新品种具有较好的经济效益,对种植农户收入提升、地区经济发展等方面具有积极推动作用,其未来发展趋势较好,发展潜力较大,会形成较高的经济收益和利润,祥丰牡丹新品种具备被农户和企业大范围推广引种的价值和潜力。     

Learning from practices — implications of the “practice based approach” for forest and environmental policy research

With the book publication “Forest and Nature Governance — A practice based approach” (Arts et al., 2013, Eds.) the Forest and Nature Conservation Policy Group of Wageningen University, The Netherlands demonstrates its high aspirations of developing a new research approach. This article aims at discussing the methodological and conceptual contributions of the book to the field of forest and environmental policy research and proposes perspectives for further developing this methodological approach. It finds the “practice based approach” being an innovative, theoretically sound concept, which is able to produce valuable and “thick” empirical results. The approach is also found offering a plethora of possibilities to link up to analytical policy research. Yet, the approach will require further elaboration, especially on questions regarding the role of definitions, its contribution towards explaining social phenomena, and concerning the use of normative orientations in some of the empirical cases. The future challenges of the approach lie in either moulding a niche for further developing it independent from other schools, or in influencing mainstream approaches through theoretical innovations or surprising empirical results.     

A typology of small-scale private forest owners in Sweden

Abstract

Planning instruments have to be consistent with the underlying values of the forest owners to have an influence on their management activities. The aims of the present study were to identify different types of Swedish forest owners, to quantify their objectives and to validate a previous, qualitative study of the objectives of the small-scale forest owners. A survey was conducted and forest owners were classified by means of cluster analysis into five types: the “economist”, the “conservationist”, the “traditionalist”, the “multiobjective owner” and finally the “passive owner”. Significant factors characterizing these owners are presented and discussed. The results showed that clear subgroups of forest owners can be differentiated by their objectives and confirm recent studies suggesting that a sole emphasis on economic benefits is not desirable from the forest owners’ point of view. The findings should give a better understanding of the behaviour of the small-scale forest owners and provide a basis for further research, counselling and development of forest policy.     

Species variables or environmental variables as indicators of forest biodiversity: a case study using saproxylic beetles in Maritime pine plantations

? To assess the sustainability of plantation forest management we compare two types of biodiversity indicators. We used the species richness of saproxylic beetles as a case study to test the “species” and “environmental” indicator approaches. We compared single species abundance or occurrence and deadwood volume or diversity as predictor variables.

? Beetles were sampled with flight interception traps in 40 Maritime pine plantation stands. The volume and diversity of deadwood was estimated with line intersect and plot sampling in the same stands. Predictive models of species richness were built with simple linear or Partial Least Square regressions.

? Deadwood variables appeared to be good predictors of saproxylic beetle richness at the stand-scale with at least 75% of variance explained. Deadwood diversity variables consistently provided better predictive models than volume variables. The best environmental indicator was the diversity of deadwood elements larger than 15 cm in diameter.

? By contrast, the use of “species variables” appeared to be less relevant. To reach the quality of prediction obtained with “environmental variables”, the abundance or occurrence of 6 to 7 species — some of which are difficult to identify — had to be used to build the indicator.

     

Developments in Swedish forest policy and administration – from a “policy of restriction” toward a “policy of cooperation”

Abstract

New tools and forms of cooperation at the landscape level are needed in order for forestry and environmental conservation to co-exist in areas with many land owners. Awareness has existed for several years in Sweden that cooperation at the landscape level is essential for protecting areas of high environmental value. This awareness has come to expression in several projects and initiatives. One of these projects is the Östra Vätterbranterna Partnership, a successful example of the new orientation toward environmental management as formulated in the government bill Sustainable protection of nature areas: new working methods with a focus on collaboration and increased dialog by involving more actors and utilizing a greater combination of steering instruments. This development resonates with the growing trend toward deregulation and less state intervention in environmental management, implying a stronger emphasis on new governance structures and market-driven processes. This paper examines the preconditions for a development toward governance-oriented forms of steering in the area of environmental policy and law, with specific emphasis on the protection of forestry areas with high environmental value. Paralleling this development, the transformation of environmental public administration is analyzed, using a model representing three different perspectives on administration's role, values and meaning, showing state action's progressive transition from “rowing” to “steering” to “serving” and facilitating.