Relationship Between Kernel Size Features and Test Weight in Triticum durum

Test weight or bulk density in durum wheat is a physical quality characteristic considered by semolina millers. High test weight values are desirable because they positively influence market grade and price. This study reports data on kernel size features, determined on a sample size of only 25 kernels, replicated three-times, of 16 commercial durum wheat cultivars grown in two locations in southern Italy, to ascertain whether some kernel traits could be related to test weight. For each year and cultivar, the analysis of variance for all of characteristics showed that sample size effect was not significant, enabling the use such a small sample for further investigations. The kernel trait with the highest variation for year was kernel width. The absolute variation of 1994 with respect to 1993 growing season was 30.9%. While kernel weight or volume did not correlate with test weight, a negative association with kernel length (r = -0.61, P = 0.05) and perimeter (r = -0.57, P = 0.05) was found. The kernel shape factors, rectangular aspect ratio (RAR) and circularity shape factor (CSF), showed a positive correlation with test weight (r = 0.51, P = 0.05 and r = 0.59, P = 0.05, respectively). The shape factors were negatively correlated both with kernel length and perimeter and positively with kernel width. A predictive model for test weight (TW = 38.7 + 5.1·ETW, where the estimated test weight [ETW] was computed as individual kernel weight/estimated kernel volume [EKV] ratio), was highly correlated with actual test weight values (r = 0.82, P = 0.001). The effectiveness of the linear model was confirmed when a set of 10 advanced lines of durum wheat were considered, although a slightly lower correlation (r = 0.73, P = 0.05) between actual and predicted test weight values was found. Because the extent of predictability of this approach might be more effective in early-generation lines, the application of the findings in a durum wheat breeding program would be advisable.     

Oat Grain/Groat Size Ratios: A Physical Basis for Test Weight

Market value of oat grain is largely determined by test weight or bulk density, yet little is known of the physical basis for test weight in oats. We have hypothesized that a larger sized groat relative to the oat grain (the kernel with the hull) would generate higher test weight oats because the groat is the densest structure in the oat grain. We tested this by measuring oat grain size and oat groat size by digital image analysis for 10 genotypes grown in 10 environments. We also measured other physical characteristics of the oats grains and groats including mean grain and groat mass, test weight, and groat percentage. We found that the groat/ grain size ratio was highly correlated with test weight. Because the oat grain image area was nearly twice that of the groat, we suggest that there are significant amounts of empty space within the oat hull, which detracts from test weight. We also found that oat groat size distributions, like oat grains, fit bimodal distributions better than normal distributions.     

沙质草原槽形风蚀坑表面沉积物粒度特征

通过对呼伦贝尔沙质草原槽形风蚀坑表面沉积物粒度的观测分析,发现活跃发展时期的槽形风蚀坑沙物质总体结构以中沙为主,其次是细砂,粗砂和粉沙含量很少,且不含砾石。由于沙源沉积物粒度组成比较均一,风蚀坑各部位粒径频率曲线均呈单峰对称（或近对称）。响应于风力侵蚀和堆积,在粒度诸参数中,粗沙和细沙含量,频率曲线众数粒径,以及平均粒径等发生了明显的变化。该研究结果作为表面气流的响应,支持了先前提出的槽形风蚀坑动力学过程。     

基于土壤颗分粒径的泥沙来源量化研究

[目的]揭示黄土高原风水复合侵蚀区风力作用对水蚀的影响,为具有不同泥沙粒径侵蚀物质来源识别提供一种有效的方法支撑,也为风水复合侵蚀区侵蚀泥沙来源辨识提供理论参考。[方法]以覆沙模拟风蚀产物,基于室内模拟试验,研究覆沙之后坡面侵蚀发育特征,同时为了有效区分不同时刻侵蚀物质的来源,尝试采用泥沙粒径作为指纹因子进行侵蚀泥沙来源贡献的辨识。[结果]不同泥沙粒径组的3个指纹因子(粒径范围分别为：26.303～34.674,104.713～138.038,138.038～181.970μm)通过检验被确定为最佳指纹因子。基于最佳指纹因子,通过多元混合模型计算得出,在对同一土槽进行的3个阶段模拟降雨试验中覆沙层和黄土层的平均泥沙贡献率分别为48.2%和51.8%,24.8%和75.2%,6.8%和93.2%,且MAF>0.8。覆沙层的泥沙贡献率为第一阶段试验>第二阶段试验>第三阶段试验,计算结果与DEM相吻合。[结论]泥沙源地和侵蚀泥沙中的不同泥沙粒径组可作为指纹因子进行泥沙来源辨别,复合指纹法具有较好的适用性。     

Influence of Kernel Size and Shriveling on Soft Wheat Milling and Baking Quality

Small kernels of soft wheat are sometimes considered to be harder than larger kernels and to have inferior milling and baking characteristics. This study distinguished between kernel size and kernel shriveling. Nine cultivars were separated into large, medium, and small kernels that had no shriveling. Eleven cultivars were separated into sound, moderate, and severely shriveled kernels. Shriveling greatly decreased the amount of flour produced during milling. It adversely affected all other milling quality characteristics (ash content, endosperm separation index, and friability). Shriveled kernels produced flour that had inferior soft wheat baking qualities (smaller cookie diameter and higher alkaline water retention capacity). In contrast, test weight and milling qualities were independent of kernel size. Small, nonshriveled kernels had slightly better baking quality (larger cookie diameter) than larger nonshriveled kernels. Small kernels were softer than large kernels (measured by break flour yield, particle size index, and flour particle size). Small nonshriveled kernels did not have diminished total flour yield potential or other reduced flour milling characteristics. Those observations suggest a possibility of separating small sound kernels from small shriveled kernels to improve flour yield and the need to improve dockage testing estimation techniques to distinguish between small shriveled and small nonshriveled kernels.     

Characterization of Oat Endoproteinases that Hydrolyze Oat Avenins

During oat seed germination, the insoluble storage proteins must be solubilized and transported to the embryo for use by the developing plantlet. We showed earlier that pH 6.2 active serine and metalloproteinases were the predominant gelatin‐hydrolyzing enzymes of oats, while the oat globulins were degraded by pH 3.8 active cysteine proteases. The pH of the endosperms of germinating oats is 6.2. We have continued our characterization of the germinated oat proteinases by determining which hydrolyze avenins, the oat storage prolamins. Avenins of resting seeds were purified and hydrolyzed with proteinases that were extracted from oat seeds that were germinated for various periods. The peptides released were analyzed using SDS‐PAGE. The α‐avenins were hydrolyzed at pH 3.8 by cysteine proteinases from four‐day germinated seeds and the β‐avenins were hydrolyzed by similar enzymes from eight‐day germinated seeds. At pH 6.2 or pH 5.0, the avenins were not degraded by any of the germinated oats endoproteinases. It is probable that some kind of pH compartmentalization occurs within germinating oat seed. After four days of germination, either new proteinases form or some preexisting proteinases are activated. The cysteine proteinases are apparently responsible for the majority of the storage protein hydrolysis that occurs during oat germination.     

Characterization of Oat Endoproteinases that Hydrolyze Oat Globulins

During the germination of oats, the major seed storage proteins (globulins) are hydrolyzed by endoproteinases. We have used two methods to characterize these endoproteinases. A qualitative PAGE method that used oat globulins as gel‐incorporated substrates was used to determine which enzymes hydrolyzed the globulins. The proteolytic hydrolysis products were studied by hydrolyzing the globulins in vitro with the endoproteinases and analyzing the products by SDS‐PAGE. Class‐specific proteinase inhibitors were used to show that the globulin hydrolyzing enzymes were cysteine‐class proteinases. The proteinases were active at pH 3.8. Using the gel analysis method, a little activity was present at the beginning of seed germination, but the major activity only appeared on the sixth day of germination. Extracts from four‐day germinated oats contained cysteine proteinases that hydrolyzed the globulins in vitro to form a polypeptide of intermediate size (MW ≈34,500). Cysteine proteases from an eight‐day germinated sample totally hydrolyzed the globulins in <1 hr. Very little hydrolysis occurred at pH 6.2, the pH of germinated oats endosperm tissue. The fact that hydrolysis occurred quickly at pH 3.8 implies that there is probably pH compartmentalization within the endosperm, with some areas of the seed having a low pH value where the globulins can be degraded.     

Variation in Kernel Hardness and Associated Traits in U.S. Barley Breeding Lines

Kernel hardness is an important trait influencing postharvest handling, processing, and food product quality in cereal grains. Though well‐characterized in wheat, the basis of kernel hardness is still not completely understood in barley. Kernels of 959 barley breeding lines were evaluated for hardness using the Single Kernel Characterization System (SKCS). Barley lines exhibited a broad range of hardness index (HI) values at 30.1–91.9. Distribution of kernel diameter and weight were 1.7–2.9 mm and 24.9–53.7 mg, respectively. The proportion of hull was 10.2–20.7%. From the 959 breeding lines, 10 hulled spring barley lines differing in HI values (30.1–91.2) were selected to study the associations of HI with proportion of hull, kernel weight, diameter, vitreousness, protein, β‐glucan, and amylose content. Vitreousness, evaluated visually using a light box, showed a clear distinction between hard and soft kernels. Hard kernels appeared translucent, while soft kernels appeared opaque when illuminated from below on the light box. Kernel brightness (L*), determined as an indicator of kernel vitreousness, showed a significant negative correlation (r = –0.83, P < 0.01) with HI. Protein, β‐glucan, amylose content, proportion of hull, kernel weight, and diameter did not show any significant association with HI.     

Relationship of Kernel Size to Flour Water Absorption for Canada Western Red Spring Wheat

Canada Western Red Spring (CWRS) wheat exhibits consistent positive relationships between kernel weight and farinograph and baking water absorption. These relationships are sufficiently robust to be statistically significant (P < 0.05) for historical Canadian Grain Commission harvest survey data generated one year apart for 17 years, and for historical data on individual cultivars in advanced Canadian wheat breeding trials, also generated annually. Verification of the relationships were obtained by analyzing different kernel size fractions obtained by sieving CWRS harvest survey samples and pure CWRS cultivars from various origins. In all cases, highly significant positive relationships were observed between kernel size and water absorption. The relationships were evident for individual streams from pilot‐scale millings of sized fractions from CWRS harvested in two different years. Strong correlations of kernel weight to farinograph and baking absorption also were shown for sized fractions from commercial samples of American Dark Northern Spring and Australian Prime Hard wheat. The strong statistical association between kernel size and water absorption could not be explained on the basis of wheat hardness (flour starch damage), protein content, or dough strength. In view of the importance of flour water absorption to bakers, further investigation is warranted to identify the cause for the association between large kernel size and high water absorption.     

土壤碱解氮空间变异与合理采样点数量研究

掌握土壤碱解氮变异特征是合理施肥与精准农业发展的前提,而合理采样点数量的确定是高效获取土壤碱解氮空间变异特征的基础。本研究基于江苏省沛县内约38 km²的区域中148个均匀分布的土壤采样点,分析了土壤碱解氮的空间变异特征,并通过区域随机抽样理论,计算了不同置信水平和误差等级的合理采样点数量。研究表明,沛县土壤碱解氮的平均含量为109.97 mg/kg,变异系数为0.29,其在空间分布上以中部和东南部局部地区土壤碱解氮含量较高,而东北部地区含量较缺乏;在95%置信水平上,当误差为5%和10%时的合理土壤采样点的数量分别为69个和27个;而在90%置信水平上,两误差等级所需合理采样点的数量分别为56个和20个。研究结果可为该地区土壤养分调查时高效采样方案的制定提供参考。     

Sources of Variation for Starch Gelatinization,Pasting, and Gelation Properties in Wheat

The starch of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) flour affects food product quality due to the temperature-dependent interactions of starch with water during gelatinization, pasting, and gelation. The objective of this study was to determine the fundamental basis of variation in gelatinization, pasting, and gelation of prime starch derived from seven different wheat cultivars: Kanto 107, which is a partial waxy mutant line, and six near-isogenic lines (NILs) differing in hardness. Complete pasting curves with extended 16-min hold at 93°C were obtained using the Rapid Visco Analyser (RVA). Apparent amylose content ranged from 17.5 to 23.5%; total amylose content ranged from 22.8 to 28.2%. Starches exhibited significant variation in onset of gelatinization. However, none of the parameters measured consistently correlated with onset or other RVA curve parameters that preceded peak paste viscosity. Peak paste viscosity varied from 190 to 323 RVA units (RVU). Higher peak, greater breakdown, lower final viscosity, negative setback, and less total setback were associated with lower apparent and total amylose contents. Each 1% reduction in apparent or total amylose content corresponded to an increase in peak viscosity of about 22 and 25 RVU, respectively, at 12% starch concentration. Of the seven U.S. cultivars, the lower amylose cultivars Penawawa and Klasic were missing the granule-bound starch synthase (GBSS; ADPglucose starch glycosyl transferase, EC 2.4.4.21) protein associated with the Waxy gene locus on chromosome 4A (Wx-B1 locus). Kanto 107 was confirmed as missing both the 7A and 4A waxy proteins (Wx-A1 and Wx-B1 loci). The hardness NIL also were shown to be null at the 4A locus. Apparent and total amylose contents of prime starch generally corresponded well to the number of GBSS proteins; although the hardness NIL tended to have somewhat higher amylose contents than did the other GBSS 4A nulls. We concluded that reduced quantity of starch amylose due to decreased GBSS profoundly affects starch gelatinization, pasting, and gelation properties.     

Effect of Kernel Size,Location, and Type of Damage on Popping Characteristics of Popcorn

Popping characteristics, specifically expansion volume and popping time, were studied for damaged popcorn. A single variety of commercial undamaged yellow popcorn was separated into four size fractions (D < 4.36, 4.36 < D < 5.16, 5.16 < D < 5.95, and D > 5.95 mm) by screening with round-hole sieves. Kernels were damaged using a razor knife by either slicing a 2-mm diameter piece of the endosperm or the germ or by cutting through the pericarp and seed coat into the endosperm or the germ ≈2 mm. A total of five combinations of location and damage were studied (tip cap removed, side cut, side sliced, germ cut, and germ sliced) for each kernel size. A control sample with no damage was also analyzed for each size fraction. All of the damaged kernels (regardless of type of damage) popped, but they had expansion volumes 9.1–47.5% smaller than those of undamaged kernels. The expansion volume of damaged kernels increased by 52.5–85.7%, depending on the damage, when the size of the kernel increased from <4.36 mm to >5.95 mm. Removing the tip cap and slicing through the germ caused less loss of expansion volume than did other types of damage. Damaged popcorn kernels had faster popping times (12.2–24.0 sec) than did undamaged kernels (30.9–34.6 sec). Popping times increased with increasing kernel size for all types of damage.     

Stability of Oat Avenanthramides

The three main oat avenanthramides, N‐(4′‐hydroxy)‐(E)‐cinnamoyl‐5‐hydroxyanthranilic acid ( Bp ), N‐(4′‐hydroxy‐3′‐methoxy)‐(E)‐cinnamoyl‐5‐hydroxyanthranilic acid ( Bf ), and N‐(3′,4′‐dihydroxy)‐(E)‐cinnamoyl‐5‐hydroxyanthranilic acid ( Bc ), and their corresponding cinnamic acids, p‐coumaric ( P ), ferulic ( F ), and caffeic ( C ), were investigated for stability to pH, temperature, and UV‐light treatment. The retention of the avenanthramides after processing of oat‐based food products was also analyzed. The avenanthramide Bc and the cinnamic acid C were sensitive to alkali and neutral conditions, especially in combination with heat treatment, whereas the other compounds studied were more stable. The cinnamic acids but not the avenanthramides were isomerized when irradiated with UV‐light. The avenanthramides were restored after processing of oat‐based products.     

亚热带典型植物水分利用来源变化的水稳定同位素分析

旨在揭示亚热带湿润地区不同植物水分利用来源和了解区域森林系统水文循环过程,以长沙地区典型常绿植物樟树、刺杉和野茶花为研究对象,利用稳定同位素技术及Iso-source混合模型定量分析不同植物水分利用特征及其对降水的响应。结果表明:在2018年9月至2019年2月的观测期内,0-10 cm土壤水中δD与降水中δD的变化趋势基本一致,均随时间变化逐渐偏正。随深度的增加,土壤水中δD受降水影响的程度逐渐减小并趋于稳定。在9-11月,3种植物对降水响应程度低,植物茎杆水中δD并未随降水中δD表现出明显偏正的趋势,在12月至翌年2月,3种植物对降水响应明显,植物茎杆水中δD与降水中δD变化趋势一致。观测期内3种植物水分利用深度均随时间变化由深变浅。在9月,3种植物主要利用60-100 cm土壤水,利用比例均超过65%。在10-11月,3种植物水分利用状况存在显著差异,樟树对0-10,10-20,20-60,60-100 cm 4个土层的水分利用较均匀,利用比例分别为28.2%,23.5%,22.0%,26.3%;刺杉主要利用0-10,60-100 cm土壤水,利用比例分别为56.4%和22.2%;林外野茶花主要利用0-20 cm浅层土壤水,利用比例为67.4%。在12月至翌年2月,3种植物主要利用0-10 cm土壤水,利用比例均在70%以上。     

Application of Oat Oil in Breadbaking

Lipids, especially polar lipids, can improve loaf volume, grain and texture, and delay staling in bread. Oats (Avena sativa L.) are rich in total and polar lipids. We have investigated the effect of oat lipids in a bread formulation on loaf volume, appearance, and bread staling. Oat oil was fractionated into polar and nonpolar fractions by water‐degumming. Crude oat oil and shortening (at 3%) increased loaf volume by ≈11% over the zero lipid formulation. The polar lipid fraction increased loaf volume by nearly the same amount when added at only a 0.5% level. The addition of 3% crude oat oil or 0.7% oat oil polar fraction significantly delayed bread firming and starch retrogradation; the difference between oat lipids and shortening was more evident at the end of a four‐day storage period. Oat lipids had a stronger relative effect on bread from a weak flour (10% protein) than from a strong flour (14% protein). The effects of oat oil in the bread formulation could be related to the amphipathic character of polar lipids in oats that enables them to interact with starch, proteins, and other bread components.     

超细粉碎辅助提取裸燕麦多糖工艺研究

以燕麦麸皮为原料,研究了超细粉碎辅助提取裸燕麦多糖的工艺技术。对裸燕麦麸皮进行超细粉碎,采用X射线小角散射法检测了麸皮的粒度分布,并通过单因素实验和正交实验优化了裸燕麦多糖的提取条件。确定超细粉碎后的燕麦麸皮的平均粒度为397.6nm,中位粒径为408.9nm,分布散度为134.8nm;裸燕麦多糖的提取条件为:提取时间0.5h,料液比为1:20,提取4次,提取温度60℃;该工艺条件下多糖的得率为0.126 g·g-1。本研究为裸燕麦的精深加工提供了理论依据,并为进一步研究裸燕麦多糖的结构效应关系奠定了基础。     

The Impact of Oat Quality on White Salted Noodles Containing Oat Flour

This research compared the physicochemical properties of six milling oat cultivars from Western Australia over two growing seasons (2011 and 2012). Variations among the cultivars in physicochemical properties, particularly β‐glucan content, were assessed to determine their suitability for incorporation into white salted noodles at a level of 30% of the flour component. The average across six oat cultivars grown in 2012 was significantly higher (P < 0.05) for protein content, lipid content, and volume of smaller sized particles (<100 µm) and significantly lower for ash content, starch damage, and volume of larger particles (>100 µm) in comparison with the average across the same oat cultivars grown in 2011. The year of cultivation by cultivar interaction was significant (P < 0.05) for ash content, protein content, β‐glucan content, starch damage, and particle size. Oat cultivar Mitika had the highest peak viscosity for 100% oat flour (whole groat) and 30% oat–wheat (OW) flour blend, which may be owing to lower amylose percentage, high protein content, and greater volume of smaller particles. The effect of growing season had greater impact on OW noodle firmness than the genetic effect of cultivars. The eating and cooking quality attributes of OW noodles, such as color, color stability, firmness, and cooking solid loss were superior for those incorporated with 2012 oat flour (whole groat) compared with 2011 oat flour. Among the six oat cultivars, Williams produced noodles with poor cooking and eating quality, and Mitika was easier to handle during processing and produced noodles with superior brightness and color stability in comparison with other oat cultivars evaluated.     

Seasonal Variation of Mercury Associated with Different Phytoplankton Size Fractions in Lahontan Reservoir, Nevada

Sampling is conducted during 2006 in Lahontan Reservoir, Nevada to investigate seasonal variation of total mercury (THg) and methylmercury (MeHg) partitioning in different phytoplankton size fractions as a function of point source (fluvial) mercury (Hg) loads, reservoir residence time, and algal growth. Carson River Hg inputs into the reservoir are extremely dynamic with spring loads two orders of magnitude larger than summer loads. Chlorophyll a measurements show two periods of algal growth. A small amount of algal growth occurs March to May. A second more substantial bloom occurs in the late summer, which is dominated by large, filamentous algae. THg concentrations (C _b) and partitioning coefficients (K _d) in total suspended particulate matter (SPM) are highest when fluvial inputs of Hg-contaminated sediment are large and are not necessarily associated with living biomass. However, MeHg K _d in the small size fraction is indirectly related to fluvial loads and more strongly associated with living biomass in the later portion of the summer when algal growth occurs and reservoir residence times are longer. Data suggest size distinction is important to MeHg partitioning in the reservoir. Lumping all sizes into a single SPM sample will bias the analysis toward low MeHg C _b and low MeHg K _d in late summer when Aphanizomenon flos-aquae dominates the phytoplankton assemblage.     

坡面小区土壤流失过程中粒径组成变化及其影响因素

利用北京密云水库上游的石匣坡面径流小区进行野外坡面产流产沙监测,探究坡地褐土土壤流失过程中土壤粒径组成变化及其影响因素.主要结论如下:坡面上部均发生土壤粗化现象.在坡度较大且无植被覆盖的坡面,坡上部土壤粗化程度强于坡中和坡下.雨季前土壤中粘粒和粉粒的含量最大,砂粒的含量最小;其次是雨季中,雨季后粘粒和粉粒的含量最小,砂粒的含量最大.在坡度较小且有植被覆盖的坡面,坡上部存在微弱的土壤粗化现象,坡下部表层土壤未现粗化.雨季前后,土壤中粘粒、粉粒和砂粒的含量变化均呈现相反的规律,即雨季前土壤粘粒、粉粒含量最小,砂粒的含量最大;而雨季后土壤粘粒、粉粒含量最大,砂粒的含量最小.随着降雨次数的增加,无论是与土壤分离的泥沙,还是坡面的产沙,粘粒含量均在减小,砂粒含量均在增多.降雨、坡度、坡长等均对泥沙起动产生促进影响,而植被覆盖会减弱土壤侵蚀和流失.