Analyzing spatial inequalities in use and experience of urban green spaces

As cities become more densely populated, urban green spaces (UGS) are increasingly important due to the environmental and social benefits they provide. Cities are confronted with the challenge of equitable supply of high-quality urban green that meets the demand of residents. This is particularly relevant in lower-income neighborhoods, which tend to suffer from the lowest supply of (high quality) UGS. In this paper, we perform spatial analysis on the responses of an online user survey to explore how UGS frequency of use, choice, and satisfaction differ by use pattern and place of residence in the Brussels Capital Region. Additionally, we identify the “push-pull” factors of individual UGS by identifying the desirable (pull) and undesirable (push) qualities that may attract or repel the use of a UGS. We find that use pattern is related to choice and experience of UGS. Compared to people who use UGS for social purposes, those who use UGS for nature-oriented reasons more often choose to visit UGS that are substantially farther from their home but are more often satisfied with the UGS they use. Our findings also show that respondents living in areas with higher proportions of disadvantaged groups tend to travel substantially farther to reach their UGS and are more often dissatisfied with the UGS they visit. Finally, our push-pull analysis indicates that characteristics that are important to nature-oriented users, such as quietness and calmness, are often more negatively experienced in dense city center UGS. Our research thus demonstrates the need to bring more green, particularly green that elicits a feeling of “naturalness”, to areas of the city where low green space quality and quantity overlap with areas inhabited by vulnerable populations.     

Evaluating the risk of accessing green spaces in COVID-19 pandemic: A model for public urban green spaces (PUGS) in London

The pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) at the beginning of 2020 has restricted the human population indoor with some allowance for recreation in green spaces for social interaction and daily exercise. Understanding and measuring the risk of COVID-19 infection during public urban green spaces (PUGS) visits is essential to reduce the spread of the virus and improve well-being. This study builds a data-fused risk assessment model to evaluate the risk of visiting the PUGS in London. Three parameters are used for risk evaluation: the number of new cases at the middle-layer super output area (MSOA) level, the accessibility of each public green space and the Indices of Multiple Deprivation at the lower-layer super output area (LSOA) level. The model assesses 1357 PUGS and identifies the risk in three levels, high, medium and low, according to the results of a two-step clustering analysis. The spatial variability of risk across the city is demonstrated in the evaluation. The evaluation of risk can provide a better metric to the decision-making at both the individual level, on deciding which green space to visit, and the borough level, on how to implement restricting measures on green space access.     

Environmental DNA metabarcoding effectively monitors terrestrial species by using urban green spaces

Ecological corridors and urban parks are created to connect habitats that become isolated due to urban development and integrate ecological, social, and cultural functions. Establishing and implementing the ecological function of urban green structures and conservation plans for urban terrestrial species requires prioritizing developing an understanding of the community structure of urban terrestrial species. However, understanding the appearance and distribution of terrestrial species in urban ecosystems is often neglected or lacking; furthermore, the inaccurate detection of species distribution can create biased estimates of species occupancy. Recently, an applied research method for detecting terrestrial species such as mammals and birds has been proposed based on molecular biology such as environmental DNA (eDNA) metabarcoding. We installed artificial water tanks (mesocosm) in urban green spaces (Urban forests; UFs, Urban ecological corridors; UECs, Urban parks; UPs), applying eDNA metabarcoding as a tool to detect wild terrestrial species, and camera traps (CTs) and field surveys were performed in parallel to verify the results. We detected 22 urban terrestrial species only by eDNA metabarcoding and identified 43 species in total by performing eDNA metabarcoding, CTs, and field surveys in parallel. In addition, we identified 31 species of UFs, 13 species of UECs, and 28 species of UPs of urban terrestrial species using the three species survey methods in parallel. We confirmed that eDNA metabarcoding is very useful for detecting small species that are difficult to detect with the naked eye and internal species vulnerable to disturbance. However, since some species were only detected by CTs or field surveys due to DNA false-negative errors or the species’ life-history characteristics, it was judged that the species inventory can be effectively collected using several monitoring techniques.     

The role of urban green spaces in care facilities for elderly people across European cities

Urban green spaces (UGS) are increasingly acknowledged for their importance for the well-being of urban populations. However, studies are lacking the consideration of the demand and use of UGS by different population groups and connecting UGS with social infrastructure. In an era of worldwide urbanization and ageing, this European study sheds light on the role of UGS for care facilities for elderly. 126 care facilities from 17 cities in Austria, Germany, Norway, Poland, Romania and Slovenia took part in an online survey. Administrations of care facilities gave insights on the (1) importance of gardens related to care facilities for the quality of life for the seniors, (2) importance of UGS outside of care facilities for the quality of life for the seniors and (3) the consideration of natural and age-friendly designs and management of ecosystem disservices of UGS. The results emphasize not only the importance of UGS for the quality of life of seniors residing in care facilities, but also for the staff and visitors. UGS contribute to physical activities, recreation, and social interactions. The study found that in particular facilities with an own garden are highly aware of the benefits UGS provide. The study holds important lessons for UGS planning, management and design not only to focus on the quantitative supply of UGS, but also to consider age-sensitive amenities in and access to UGS of high quality for seniors.     

Quantifying green cover change for sustainable urban planning: A case of Kuala Lumpur,Malaysia

Despite the numerous benefits of urban green cover, urban land development has led to its destruction and degradation, including in Malaysia. In this study, time series Landsat satellite imagery were used to monitor green cover changes in Kuala Lumpur (KL), the largest and capital city of Malaysia. An advanced satellite image processing technique that considers the mixed-pixel problem was employed to determine the fraction of green cover in each Landsat pixel. Results show that the total green coverage in Kuala Lumpur decreased by 3% over the first study period, from 6564 ha in 2001–5,891 ha in 2013. However, it increased by 4% in the second, from 6215 ha in 2014–7,310 ha in 2016, and now green cover is 30% of the total land area of KL. These periods were selected to observe the changes in green cover before and after implementation of the “Greening KL” program, which was aimed to plant 100,000 trees in KL by year 2020. Most of the increase in green cover was contributed by trees planted along streets and in recreational parks. Other findings include a loss of ∼9% of green cover in two public parks compared to their total gazetted area, and a loss of green area in other forested parts of KL. Focus group discussions and structured interviews with public, private and non-governmental organizations indicate that green-cover losses can be partly attributed to weak regulations and their poor enforcement. Opportunities to protect and increase green cover in KL are also explored in this study. Such approaches are urgently needed before most of the green areas disappear from the landscape of KL, exacerbating the existing environmental problems in the city.     

The fate of urban green spaces: Assessment of the ownership,availability and conditions of parks in Accra,Ghana

Globally, the loss of green spaces threatens the sustainability of many cities. Among other factors, complex land ownership and management regime reportedly disrupt land administration and development; but with inconclusive empirical evidence on how this influences the conditions, availability and development of parks. This study, using Accra, thus employs document analysis, 16 key informant interviews and observation of majaor parks to: (i) explore the spatial location of parks and the relationship between their ownership and conditions, (ii) examine the factors which have influenced the decline in park size and conditions, and (iii) examine the institutional response to improving upon park planning, availability and conditions. The findings show distributive injustice of parks as most of them are located in high- and middle-income neighborhoods. There is also evidence of decreasing available park land per 1000 population between 1991 and 2022. Parks managed by private institutions were found to be in very good state compared to those managed by state institutions. The existing dualistic and complex land tenure regime have largely led to the decline in park availability and conditions. Other reported factors were rapid urbanization, land litigation, low priority to park development and planning, laxity in the enforcement of regulations, and political interference. The study makes recommendations to improve upon existing practices and generally enhance park creation, availability and conditions.     

A general grass growth model for urban green spaces management in tropical regions: A case study with bahiagrass in southeastern Brazil

Urban green spaces (UGS) positively impact the population, providing essential ecosystem services and improving public health. Urban vegetation management needs to optimize mowing process costs and reducing impacts on the natural ecosystem. Thus, we implemented a general grass growth model suitable for UGS management in tropical areas, focused on lawns, public parks and squares, roadsides, and around waterways. The model incorporates local edaphoclimatic conditions to simulates the daily dynamics of leaf area index (LAI), biomass, evapotranspiration, and soil water content, going under mowing processes or not, with spatialization capability which might be integrated within geographic information system (GIS) environments. A case study assessing bahiagrass (Paspalum notatum Flüggé) vegetation species in São Carlos, southeastern Brazil, is presented, considering two scenarios to demonstrate the spatial capabilities of the model: (i) UGS as a single area, and (ii) several areas independently. For model validation, vegetation indices calculated based on data from an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) and CubeSat imagery (PlanetScope) were used to retrieve LAI time series, calibrated with spectral signatures from leaf ground sampling. For performance analysis, LAI time series from the model and LAI retrieved from both sensors were compared via determination coefficient (R²⁾ and root mean square error (RMSE). Our findings suggest that the proposed model is accurate, and due to its spatialization capability and integration with a GIS, its application may help government administrations to optimize UGS mowing processes.     

Assessment of joint soil ecosystem services supply in urban green spaces: A case study in Northern Italy

The multiple functions of urban soils secure the supply of ecosystem services to the urban population, but they are seldom taken into account in current urban planning. The purpose of this study is to highlight the multifunctionality of the soils of urban green spaces and to assess the influence of different types of urban green (i.e. parks and gardens, roadside green and agricultural fields) on the joint supply of soil-based ecosystem services. In a case study area in the city of Carpi (NE Italy), we focused on a set of soil functions underpinning ecosystem services and on possible synergies and trade-offs between them. We surveyed and sampled 19 urban green areas to assess the following soil functions: biological fertility, potential habitat for organisms, water regulation and storage, soil buffering capacity and carbon stock. Results showed differences and trends in the bundles of ecosystem services provided by the soils of urban green areas, highlighting the relevance of soil disturbance and vegetation cover density in affecting soil functions. For biological indicators, results showed a negative significant correlation to CaCO₃ content, which is associated with the degree of soil disturbance, and that soils in urban areas do not always have compromised soil fauna and may provide the same level of biological quality as agricultural soils or forests.     

The role of green spaces and their management in a child-friendly urban village

Environmental child-friendliness is affected by how built environments and green spaces are planned and designed, but also by their ongoing management, including both development and maintenance. This study examined children’s perspectives on their local environments with focus on green spaces and their management in an urban village. Five groups totalling 16 children aged 10–11 were interviewed through child-led walks. Both the qualities of the village as a whole and of specific places within it added to the child-friendliness of the local environment. The children showed planned and managed spaces including playgrounds and parks, and unmanaged places such as abandoned gardens. They found many qualities in multifunctional planned places with a varied, rich content. In unmanaged areas the lack of management was seen as positive for exploration, play possibilities and for the place to be children’s own. The findings suggest that children’s perspectives can play an important role not only in planning and design, but also in the ongoing process of landscape management, including the provision of more variation in local green spaces.     

The relationship between urban green space and social health of individuals: A scoping review

Urban green space is an important resource to effectively improve the urban environment and human health. A growing body of evidence highlights their positive impact on physical, mental and social health. Less focus has been paid to the social health benefits of urban green space. Designing urban green space to improve the social health of various groups has become a crucial problem, given the lack of uniformity in defining and measuring social health, as well as the varying social health needs of different individuals. This review aims to explore the relationship between urban green space and social health of individuals, which is defined as how one gets along with other people, how other people react to him/her, and how one reacts with the social institutions and societal mores. According to the PRISMA extension for Scoping Review (PRISMA-ScR) guidelines, 60 articles published between 1998 and 2022 met the inclusion criteria were reviewed. The results demonstrated that different types of urban green space significantly influenced the social health of individuals. The dimensions of social health of individuals based on urban green space could be divided into four groups: social contacts, social relations, social support and social connections, which were mainly affected by the physical characteristics, perceptions, and usages of urban green space to varying degrees. Socio-demographic characteristics could moderate the strength and orientation of the relationship between urban green space and social health of individuals. As the first scoping review to analyze the relationship between urban green space and individual social health, this study not only provides evidence for the social health benefits of urban green space, but also offers information and tools for future research and policymakers.     

Influence of green spaces on environmental satisfaction and physiological status of urban residents

Influence of urban green spaces on human was evaluated with subjective questionnaires as well as physiological measurements. Five sample plots vary in color, size and scent of major plants and one no-vegetation area located in Shanghai Botanical Garden, China were chosen. 249 questionnaires on subjective satisfaction evaluation were collected; in addition to 64 visitors took the measurement of physiological parameters like Electroencephalogram (EEG) and Electrocardiogram (ECG). Questionnaire results show that color is one of the most important factors which affect the overall satisfaction of people with their vegetation environment. The way how people perceive vegetation environment was probed by PCA analysis. Age difference analysis show children and elder people presented higher satisfaction with vegetation environment than adults. Significant negative correlation between the ratio of low-frequency to high-frequency (LF/HF) values in heart rate variability (HRV) analysis and satisfaction values indicated HRV may be an effective parameter for green spaces influence evaluation.     

The routes to fruit: Governance of urban food trees in Canada

Interest in planting urban food trees (UFTs) in public spaces is growing in popularity as a form of urban greening and a potential food source. Currently there is minimal research on the governance and policy aspects of integrating food trees into cities. To fill this gap, we investigated the characteristics of UFT site governance and how it compares to current urban forest governance. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with relevant municipal officials in Calgary, Edmonton, Toronto and Victoria about their perspectives and involvement with UFT sites in their city. A scan of policy documents was completed to supplement the interviews. The interviews were analyzed using a deductive coding framework based on the Policy Arrangement Approach. We found that key actors at the UFT sites were local organizations and site champions, with minimal municipal engagement. Most site resources provided by municipalities were in-kind. There are also basic knowledge gaps about how to care for UFTs. Currently municipal by-laws prohibit the harvesting and removal of plant material, and are at odds with the purpose of UFT sites, with few municipalities fully integrating UFTs in policies. The primary discussion around UFTs centre concerns for public health and safety, management, and use of public space with limited discussions of benefits. This research demonstrates the value of co-governance models to support UFTs, while a shift in focus from risks to benefits could encourage additional resources and policy integration. Further, including UFTs into policy would also support foraging and food tree maintenance in public spaces, and more fully reflect the plurality of urban forest engagement.     

Economic development and natural amenity: An econometric analysis of urban green spaces in China

Rapid urbanization and spontaneous economic development has brought about profound changes in urban landscapes throughout the world. The task of managing transforming urban landscapes, particularly urban green spaces, so as to provide sufficient natural amenity for increasing urban populations, is one of the critical challenges facing policy makers. However, little empirical evidence exists about the evolving path of urban green spaces along with economic development and urbanization. This study attempts to fill in this knowledge gap through an econometric analysis of panel data across 285 Chinese cities during a period of rapid urbanization and economic growth (2001–2010). The results point to the existence of an N-shaped environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) for an important aspect of environmental quality: urban green spaces. Urban green space coverage increases at the initial stage of economic development, and then it starts to decrease as GDP per capita exceeds RMB50,855 and then increases again at a high GDP per capita level (RMB107,558). Large elasticity (>1) is expected as GDP per capita grows to a higher level (beyond RMB128,095). By the end of 2010, 30% of Chinese cities are still located on the downward-sloping path and only four cities have attained elasticities greater than one. The findings present a challenging and pressing call for policy makers to effectively manage the tradeoffs between continuous economic development and better natural amenities.     

Restorative properties of green sheltered spaces and their morphological characteristics in urban parks

The properties of green space for physical and mental health have been widely demonstrated, especially after the COVID-19 pandemic. However, few studies have systematically focused on spatial indicator thresholds that provide a sense of refuge with restoration benefits. Four morphological indicators as area, coverage, enclosure, and the ratio of width to height(D/H), were quantified for thirty-one scenes in outdoor green sheltered spaces in seven urban parks of Harbin in China. The results show that the sense of refuge and the morphological character of a green space constitute elements that influence restorative properties. Green spaces with different morphological indicators have different restorative properties. The morphological indicator ranges that produce better restorative properties were obtained: 250–500 m² for area, 0.25–0.35 for coverage, 0.3–0.4 or 0.8–1 for enclosure, and 0.7–1.5 for D/H. This can provide references for the construction of restorative activity spaces in urban parks.     

Animals in urban green spaces in relation to mental restorative quality

Despite the important roles that animals play in ecosystems, their functions in urban green spaces are often overlooked. To fill this gap, this study explored the effects of four animal species on the mental restorative quality of urban green spaces by comparing observers’ response to pictures with and without animals. The results indicated that swans, deer, and pigeons which were unthreatening to humans could significantly improve mental restoration of observers, and comparatively, swans had the strongest effect. Conversely, unleashed dogs were a potential threat to humans, and decreased the mental restorative quality of urban green spaces. The mechanism of animals’ effects on mental restoration and the differential effects of four animal species were discussed. To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study addressing the mental health impacts of animals in landscapes, and the results suggest that “animal-inclusive landscape design” has a positive impact on urban green spaces.     

Enhancing plant diversity and mitigating BVOC emissions of urban green spaces through the introduction of ornamental tree species

Promoting the plant diversity of urban green spaces is crucial to increase ecosystem services in urban areas. While introducing ornamental plants can enhance the biodiversity of green spaces it risks environmental impacts such as increasing emissions of biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs) that are harmful to air quality and human health. The present study, taking Qingdao City as a case study, evaluated the plant diversity and BVOC emissions of urban green spaces and tried to find out a solution to increase biodiversity while reducing BVOC emissions. Results showed that: (1) the species diversity and phylogenetic diversity of trees in urban green spaces were 22% and 16% lower than rural forest of this region; (2) urban areas had higher BVOC emission intensity (2.6 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹) than their rural surroundings (2.1 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹); (3) introducing the selected 11 tree species will increase 15% and 11% of species diversity and phylogenetic diversity, respectively; and (4) the BVOC emissions from green spaces will more than triple by 2050, but a moderate introduction of the selected low-emitting trees species could reduce 34% of these emissions. The scheme of introducing low-emitting ornamental species leads to a win–win situation and also has implications for the sustainable green space management of other cities.     

Exploring public preferences and preference heterogeneity for green and blue infrastructure in urban green spaces

Green and blue urban infrastructure (GBI) has many positive functions often not recognised by residents (e.g., microclimate regulation, water retention, etc.). The question for urban planners who are aware of these functions when planning new GBI elements or revitalising existing GBI is how much they need to account for the preference heterogeneity of locals, who typically consider only aesthetic and recreational value. This study uses data from a discrete choice experiment among residents of the medium-sized Czech city of Liberec to reveal which combinations of nature-based or semi-natural GBI and recreational facilities respondents prefer and how strong their preferences are in terms of their willingness to pay. Overall, study respondents preferred nature-based GBI to semi-natural ones. A mixed-latent class model identified two groups of respondents who differ in preferences, trade-offs, and socio-demographic characteristics: (i) mostly older educated women who prefer nature-based elements and enjoy park infrastructure; (ii) mostly less educated men who dislike urban gardens and semi-natural streams and do not value park infrastructure. Based on the results, we recommend that spatial planners and green space managers design and implement more nature-based elements in Liberec, which are in line with the respondents’ preferences.     

The socioeconomics and management of Santiago de Chile''s public urban forests

Santiago, Chile's semi-arid climate and urbanized environment poses a severe limitation for the establishment and maintenance of urban forests. Municipalities, or comunas, are the main stakeholders in the management of Santiago's public urban forests. A tenable hypothesis would be that as the socioeconomic level of a comuna increases, the better the condition of a comuna's urban forest. Unfortunately, there is little comprehensive information on management, public expenditure, and structure of Santiago's public and private urban forests. To examine this hypothesis, Santiago was divided into socioeconomic strata, then using air photo interpretation and stratified field sampling, urban forest structures were quantified by socioeconomic strata. In addition, interview surveys were used to determine municipal urban forest management and expenditures for different public urban forests based on socioeconomic strata. Urban forests in the high socioeconomic strata had fewer public trees, greater tree cover, tree and leaf area density, and leaf area index than lower socioeconomic strata. The percentage of total municipal budget allocated to public urban forest management was consistent among strata, but the total public urban forest budgets were greater in the high socioeconomic strata. Public urban forest structure is related to the socioeconomic strata of Santiago's different comunas.     

Responses of four hornet species to levels of urban greenness in Nagoya city,Japan: Implications for ecosystem disservices of urban green spaces

Although there is a common trend towards increasing green space in modern cities, urban green spaces provide not only ecosystem services but also disservices for urban dwellers. However, the relationship between urban greenness and ecosystem disservices has been poorly examined. We aimed to understand the effect of greenness level on the abundance and species composition of hornets – critical pests in Japan and to identify the best spatial scale for estimating their abundance with reference to greenness levels. We used a dataset that contained eight years of abundance data for four hornet species at 11 sites in Nagoya city. The levels of greenness around the hornet sampling points were measured using averages from the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) with radiuses of 0.1–10.0 km. We analysed the relationship between abundance and species composition of hornets and NDVI at different spatial scales using generalized linear mixed models. Higher NDVI values positively affected the abundance of all the hornet species except Vespa analis. The abundances were estimated most effectively using the NDVI average with a 1–2 km radius for all species. The species composition of hornets drastically changed along the gradient of NDVI values; V. mandarinia was dominant in greener areas (over 0.2–0.3 NDVI average with a 2 km radius) and V. analis in less green areas (below 0.2–0.3 NDVI average). Our study showed that the abundance and species composition of hornets were both strongly associated with the level of urban greenness. This suggests that increases in the greenness of urban areas can increase hornet abundance and alter the species composition of hornets; a more aggressive species, V. mandarinia, may also increase in urban areas, although V. analis is currently the most critical species according to regional consultants. Balancing ecosystem services and disservices has become crucial for the planning and management of green spaces, particularly when urban green space increases. We also demonstrate how human tolerance towards wildlife may have to be improved in order to live in greener environment where wildlife can be expected.     

The influence of subjective perceptions on the valuation of green spaces in Japanese urban areas

This study focuses on the importance of subjective perceptions in the valuation and conservation of urban green spaces. Because physical attributes of the natural environment are filtered through individuals’ perceptions, their self-reporting of the extent of green spaces fluctuates according to their biases. However, the determinant of people’s self-reporting of the extent of green spaces within neighborhoods remains unclear. An examination of the relationship between the physical attributes of green spaces and the self-reported extent of green spaces is required to address this uncertainty. Accordingly, two separate studies were conducted by establishing two types of data on green spaces: physical data derived from a Geographical Information System and questionnaire-derived self-reported data. Multiple regression analysis was performed to compare the effects of different types of physical green spaces on the self-reported extent of green spaces. The results indicated that residents’ perceptions of same-sized green spaces differed considerably depending on their type. To ascertain the effects of subjective perceptions on economic valuation, a life satisfaction approach was subsequently applied within two separate analyses. In the first analysis, reflecting a normal pattern, the relationship between life satisfaction and the area of green space was examined, and in the second analysis, the self-reported extent of green spaces was used as an intermediate variable between green spaces and life satisfaction. A comparison of the estimated values from the two analyses revealed significant differences, depending on whether self-reported green spaces were used as an intermediate variable. Specifically, values of urban green spaces fluctuated more than those of forests in the case of self-reported green spaces. Although urban planners and experts generally emphasize the physical attributes of green spaces, such as area, these results indicate that it is critical to consider people’s perceptions.