Biophysical interactions in tropical agroforestry systems

The rate and extent to which biophysical resources are captured and utilized by the components of an agroforestry system are determined by the nature and intensity of interactions between the components. The net effect of these interactions is often determined by the influence of the tree component on the other component(s) and/or on the overall system, and is expressed in terms of such quantifiable responses as soil fertility changes, microclimate modification, resource (water, nutrients, and light) availability and utilization, pest and disease incidence, and allelopathy. The paper reviews such manifestations of biophysical interactions in major simultaneous (e.g., hedgerow intercropping and trees on croplands) and sequential (e.g., planted tree fallows) agroforestry systems. In hedgerow intercropping (HI), the hedge/crop interactions are dominated by soil fertility improvement and competition for growth resources. Higher crop yields in HI than in sole cropping are noted mostly in inherently fertile soils in humid and subhumid tropics, and are caused by large fertility improvement relative to the effects of competition. But, yield increases are rare in semiarid tropics and infertile acid soils because fertility improvement does not offset the large competitive effect of hedgerows with crops for water and/or nutrients. Whereas improved soil fertility and microclimate positively influence crop yields underneath the canopies of scattered trees in semiarid climates, intense shading caused by large, evergreen trees negatively affects the yields. Trees in boundary plantings compete with crops for above- and belowground resources, with belowground competition of trees often extending beyond their crown areas. The major biophysical interactions in improved planted fallows are improvement of soil nitrogen status and reduction of weeds in the fallow phase, and increased crop yields in the subsequent cropping phase. In such systems, the negative effects of competition and micro-climate modification are avoided in the absence of direct tree–crop interactions. Future research on biophysical interactions should concentrate on (1) exploiting the diversity that exists within and between species of trees, (2) determining interactions between systems at different spatial (farm and landscape) and temporal scales, (3) improving understanding of belowground interactions, (4) assessing the environmental implications of agroforestry, particularly in the humid tropics, and (5) devising management schedules for agroforestry components in order to maximize benefits. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Agroforestry practice and policy in the United States of America

Agroforestry practices and the policies influencing development and adoption within the United States are reviewed. Agroforestry is defined as ‘intensive land-management systems that optimize the benefits from biological interactions created when trees and/or shrubs are deliberately combined with crops and/or livestock’. The five agroforestry systems identified as having importance in the US are tree-agronomic crop systems (alley cropping and intercropping), riparian vegetative buffer strip systems, tree-animal systems (silvopasturing), forest/speciality crop systems (forest farming) and windbreak systems (shelterbelts). A lack of federal policy relating specifically to agroforestry exists. If agroforestry is to achieve its full potential in the United States, adequate financial, institutional and technical support for its development must be provided.     

A cost-benefit analysis of hedgerow intercropping in the Philippine uplands using the SCUAF model

Soil erosion in the Philippine uplands is severe. Hedgerow intercropping is widely advocated as an effective means of controlling soil erosion from annual cropping systems in the uplands. However, few farmers adopt hedgerow intercropping even in areas where it has been vigorously promoted. This may be because farmers find hedgerow intercropping to be uneconomic compared to traditional methods of farming. This paper reports a cost-benefit analysis comparing the economic returns from traditional maize farming with those from hedgerow intercropping in an upland community with no past adoption of hedgerows. A simple erosion/productivity model, Soil Changes Under Agroforestry (SCUAF), is used to predict maize yields over 25 years. Economic data were collected through key informant surveys with experienced maize farmers in an upland community. Traditional methods of open-field farming of maize are economically attractive to farmers in the Philippine uplands. In the short term, establishment costs are a major disincentive to the adoption of hedgerow intercropping. In the long term, higher economic returns from hedgerow intercropping compared to open-field farming are realised, but these lie beyond farmers limited planning horizons.     

Root distribution and interactions in jujube tree/wheat agroforestry system

Even though agronomists have considered the spatial root distribution of plants to be important for interspecific interactions in agricultural intercropping, few experimental studies have quantified patterns of root distribution and their impacts on interspecific interactions in agroforestry systems. A field experiment was conducted to investigate the relationship between root distribution and interspecific interactions between intercropped jujube tree (Zizyphus jujuba Mill.) and wheat (Triticum aestivum Linn.) in Hetian, south Xinjiang province, northwest China. Roots were sampled by auger in 2-, 4- and 6-year-old jujube tree/wheat intercropping and in sole wheat and 2-, 4- and 6-year-old sole jujube down to 100 cm depth in the soil profile. The roots of both intercropped wheat and jujube had less root length density (RLD) at all soil depths than those of sole wheat and jujube trees. The RLD of 6-year-old jujube intercropped with wheat at different soil depths was influenced by intercropping to a smaller extent than in other jujube/wheat intercropping combinations. 6-year-old jujube exhibited a stronger negative effect on the productivity of wheat than did 2- or 4-year-old jujube and there was less effect on productivity of jujube in the 6-year-old system than in the 2- or 4-year-old jujube trees grown in monoculture. These findings may partly explain the interspecific competition effects in jujube tree/wheat agroforestry systems.     

Contour hedgerow intercropping in the mountains of China: a review

Hedgerow intercropping systems were introduced in China in early 1990s. Achievements in research and extension of contour hedgerow intercropping in China during the past 15 years are reviewed here. Results reported in over 70 published papers have shown that hedgerow intercropping contributes to soil and water conservation, soil fertility amelioration, land productivity improvement, bio-terrace formation, and gives more options for income generation based on local resources in mountain areas. Research and demonstration works on contour hedgerow systems have achieved success by integrating local resources and needs into the system, especially in the dry valleys of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River, and the Three Gorges region. Contour hedgerow intercropping has attracted the attention of researchers, policy-makers, and farmers, and has been taken as an alternative to implementation of the Grain for Green policy, and ecological reconstruction and restoration today. To date, hedgerow intercropping has been demonstrated and applied practically on sloping land in more than six provinces of China, particularly Sichuan, Guizhou, Shanxi, Shaanxi, as well as in the Three Gorges region of Chongqing and Hubei Province. The intercropping system has also been practiced as an optimized technology for conserving farming on sloping lands, improving cash income, and reducing agricultural risks in depressed mountainous regions in southwest and northern China over recent years. Some misunderstandings and problems in studies and extension of the system in China are summarized and clarified, and some recommendations for further research and expansion of the system are also presented in this paper.     

Agroforestry in the management of sloping lands in Asia and the Pacific

Steeply sloping lands are widespread in the tropics. An estimated 500 million people practice subsistence agriculture in these marginal areas. Continued population growth has led to the intensified cultivation of large areas of the sloping lands, exacerbating the problem of soil erosion. Although research shows that alley cropping and other contour agroforestry systems can stabilize the sloping lands, these systems have not been widely adopted by farmers. The Framework for Evaluating Sustainable Land Management (FESLM) has been tested in sloping land areas in the Philippines. Sustainable land management must be productive, stable, viable, and acceptable to farmers, while protecting soil and water resources. Farms on which contour hedgerow intercropping has been adopted meet the multifaceted requirements of FESLM, whereas the farmers' current practice does not. Appropriate land management measures for particular locations depend on a complex suite of social, economic, and biophysical factors, and need to be developed in participation with farmers. The role of agroforestry in sustainable management of sloping lands is the subject of networks coordinated by the International Board for Soil Research and Management (IBSRAM) in seven countries in Asia (ASIALAND) and four countries in the Pacific (PACIFICLAND). We review selected outcomes from a wealth of network data. From these results the following conclusions about the sustainability of various agroforestry systems for sloping lands can be drawn: • In the Pacific, soil loss from sloping lands due to water erosion under farmers' current practices is episodic, unpredictable, and possibly not severe; • Agroforestry systems that utilize legume shrubs, fruit trees, coffee (Coffea spp.) or rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) provide useful economic returns, but are not an essential component in terms of soil protection because grass or pineapple (Ananas comosus) planted on the contour are equally effective in reducing erosion; • Agricultural intensification will lead to nutrient mining, reduction of aboveground biomass, declining yields, and less soil protection unless external sources of nutrients are used; • nitrogen can be effectively supplied using legumes; • Cash derived from hedgerow trees and/or shrubs may providean incentive for their adoption by farmers, as well as funds to purchase external inputs such as fertilizers; • Labor may be a major constraint to the adoption of complex agroforestry systems. We also discuss the information management systems required to effectively manage and utilize the extensive sets of experimental and indigenous data being accumulated. We believe such information systems can facilitate technology transfer across and between regions, and improve the efficiency of research into agroforestry and other land-management approaches. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Agroforestry Systems as Alternative Land-Use Options in the Arid Zone of Thal,Pakistan

Agroforestry offers unique opportunities for increasing biodiversity, preventing land degradation, and alleviating poverty, particularly in developing countries, but factors explaining the adoption by farmers are not well understood. A survey of 524 farm households was conducted in Bhakkar district of Punjab, Pakistan to study factors that determine the adoption of agroforestry on the sand dunes in the resource-deficient region of Thal. Two types of agroforestry systems were studied: intercropping and border cropping (also known as boundary or perimeter planting). Both agroforestry systems included irrigated cultivation of the timber trees Eucalyptus camaldulensis (local name: sufeda) and Tamarix aphylla (local name: sars) with wheat, chickpeas (Cicer arietinum) (local name: chana) or cluster beans (Cyamous tetragocalobe) (local name: guars). The majority of the farmers was in favour of intercropping and border cropping. Most farmers reported the protection of nearby crops from dust storms as the most important positive perception about both agroforestry systems. Age, education, and farm to market distance were significant determinants of agroforestry adoption. Older and less-educated farmers, with farms closer to markets were less likely to adopt tree planting or border cropping in Thal. In general, the agroforestry systems examined were more likely to be adopted by farmers who can wait 3–4 years for harvesting crop outputs, but not by poorer farmers who are totally dependent on subsistence agriculture and cannot afford the high initial cost of agroforestry establishment, nor can they wait for crop output for extended periods. Furthermore, the adoption of both agroforestry systems was more likely in remote marginal areas than in areas close to markets. To increase agroforestry adoption rates, government policies should strengthen farmers’ knowledge of every stage of agroforestry through extension services, focusing particularly among the prime prospects, i.e. farmers who will be most likely to adopt agroforestry. Once the prime prospects have adopted it, the older, less-educated, and poor farmers of the rural population can be also focused on to motivate adoption.     

Landowner perceptions and the adoption of agroforestry practices in southern Ontario,Canada

A mail-out survey questionnaire was developed by the Agroforestry group at the University of Guelph to determine the level of awareness and interest in the adoption of agroforestry systems by landusers from four townships in Wellington County, Ontario. The questionnaire investigated: (1) the current level of knowledge regarding windbreaks, woodlots and plantations, intereropping, riparian plantations and silvipasture, (2) the present level of participation in each of these systems on-farm, (3) the perceived benefits and/or drawbacks of each of these initiatives with respect to total farm income, income diversity, land rehabilitation, land value/equity, soil/water conservation, labour intensity, overhead and return on the term of investment.The majority of respondents were familiar with conventional agroforestry systems such as windbreaks and woodlots/plantations (80%, 62% respectively), therefore the level of interest in the adoption of these practices was significant (74%, 66% respectively). Response rates were lower for silvipasture, riparian plantations and intercropping, most likely as result of the low level of familiarity with these practices (20%, 32%, 4% respectively). Respondents commented that agroforestry systems would have a neutral effect on farm income, and would increase land stewardship. In some cases, interested landusers indicated a willingness to participate in agroforestry systems even though they anticipated increases in overhead and labour intensity; however, this was only true if they held land stewardship as a priority. Landusers were more concerned with the economic aspects of agroforestry, as a determinant to the future adoptability of particular practices. Age, gender, farm operation and farm size were not correlated with the adoption of agroforestry systems.The success of agroforestry programs on farms in the study area is largely dependent on the attitudes and willingness of landusers to participate in non-traditional agricultural systems.     

海南尖峰岭地区三种热带复合农林业体系效益研究

对海南岛尖峰岭地区热带珍贵树种母生、海南石梓人工林下种植经济作物益智、咖啡的复合农林业系统的生态和经济效益研究表明：复合系统能显著促进主林层乔木的生长,胸径生长速度比对照地高出４３％～１３４％,材积生长高出１８％～８１％,生物量高出５％～８６％;生物量净积累量９．５３～１５．２３ｔ·ｈｍ－２·ａ－１,为对照地的１．６～５．１倍;系统的光能利用率为０．７８％～１．２６％,为对照样地的１．９４～５．０４倍;同时系统具有较高的经济效益,林下种植益智后的产值可达１．８～３万元·ｈｍ－２·ａ－１,为对照地的５．２６～９．８２倍,投入产出比为１∶２．９３～１∶４．１７。     

Agroforestry research and practice in Sri Lanka

A review of agroforestry research and practice in Sri Lanka is provided with emphasis on traditional systems, plantation intercropping, silvopastoral systems, fertility improvement and community approaches. Comments are presented on the potentials and difficulties of each technology along with recommendations for further research and training. Some information on components of a number of agroforestry systems has been collected during the last 8 years. A brief account of the results is presented together with comments on current agroforestry practices.     

Cost-benefit analysis of alternative forms of hedgerow intercropping in the Philippine uplands

Considerable resources have been expended promoting hedgerow intercropping with shrub legumes to farmers in the Philippine uplands. Despite the resources committed to research and extension, persistent adoption by farmers has been limited to low cost versions of the technology including natural vegetation and grass strips. In this paper, cost-benefit analysis is used to compare the economic returns from traditional open-field maize farming with returns from intercropping maize between leguminous shrub hedgerows, natural vegetation strips and grass strips. An erosion/productivity model, Soil Changes Under Agroforestry, was used to predict the effect of erosion on maize yields. Key informant surveys with experienced maize farmers were used to derive production budgets for the alternative farming methods. The economic incentives revealed by the cost-benefit analysis help to explain the adoption of maize farming methods in the Philippine uplands. Open-field farming without hedgerows has been by far the most popular method of maize production, often with two or more fields cropped in rotation. There is little persistent adoption of hedgerow intercropping with shrub legumes because sustained maize yields are not realised rapidly enough to compensate farmers for establishment and maintenance costs. Natural vegetation and grass strips are more attractive to farmers because of lower establishment costs, and provide intermediate steps to adoption. Rural finance, commodity pricing and agrarian reform policies influence the incentives for maize farmers in the Philippine uplands to adopt and maintain hedgerow intercropping. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

What do farmers think? Farmer evaluations of hedgerow intercropping under semi-arid conditions

Results from farmer evaluations of exploratory on-farm trials with hedgerow inter-cropping in a semi-arid region of Kenya (the Yatta Plateau of Machakos District) are presented. Hedgerows ofCassia siamea, Gliricidia sepium andLeucaena leucocephala, which were managed by eight farmers to enhance soil fertility, were established in the mid-1980s. Although trial farmers appear convinced of the ability of the technology to increase crop yields, reduce erosion and provide firewood, most did not feel that the short-term risks (i.e. reduction in crop productivity) and the extra labour required were worth the long-term benefits. Hence, few of the eight farmers were willing to extend their hedges. The discussion suggests that in the risky production environment of the Yatta Plateau, where crop yields fluctuate constantly with the amount of rainfall, soil fertility is not of urgent concern to farmers. A participatory case study approach, which emphasizes farmers' opinions, preferences and ideas elicited through regular farmer evaluation exercises, as distinct from on-farm technology testing for validation, is recommended for on-farm research on new and complex agroforestry technologies. This approach permits between understanding of some of the complex socio-economic factors affecting the adoption of hedgerow intercropping and is the most cost-effective way to gather in-depth and contextual information on farmer decision-making and management of externally introduced agroforestry technologies.     

Above- and below-ground biomass dynamics in a sole cropping and an alley cropping system withGliricidia sepium in the semi-deciduous rainforest zone of West Africa

A considerable amount of data is available about above-ground biomass production and turnover in tropical agroforestry systems, but quantitative information concerning root turnover is lacking. Above- and below-ground biomass dynamics were studied during one year in an alley cropping system withGliricidia sepium and a sole cropping system, on aPlinthic Lixisol in the semi-deciduous rainforest zone of the Côte d'Ivoire. Field crops were maize and groundnut. Live root mass was higher in agroforestry than in sole cropping during most of the study period. This was partly due to increased crop and weed root development and partly to the presence of the hedgerow roots. Fine root production was higher in the alleys and lower under the hedgerows compared to the sole cropping plots. Considering the whole plot area, root production in agroforestry and sole cropping systems was approximatly similar with 1000–1100 kg ha^–1 (dry matter with 45% C) in 0–50 cm depth; about 55% of this root production occured in the top 10 cm. Potential sources of error of the calculation method are discussed on the basis of the compartment flow model. Above-ground biomass production was 11.1 Mg ha^–1 in sole cropping and 13.6 Mg ha^–1 in alley cropping, of which 4.3 Mg ha^–1 were hedgerow prunings. The input of hedgerow root biomass into the soil was limited by the low root mass ofGliricidia as compared to other tree species, and by the decrease of live root mass of hedgerows and associated perennial weeds during the cropping season, presumably as a result of frequent shoot pruning.     

Agroforestry in Europe: a review of the disappearance of traditional systems and development of modern agroforestry practices, with emphasis on experiences in Germany

Agroforestry is a new name for a rather old practice. From a historical point of view, various agroforestry systems existed in Europe, of which the wood pastures (Neolithicum), the Dehesas in Spain (~4,500 years old) and the Hauberg of the Siegerland (established in the Middle Age) are the most prominent. Other widespread systems in Europe were hedgerows, windbreaks and Streuobst (orchard intercropping). Due to mechanisation and intensification of agriculture, trees have been progressively removed from agricultural fields and traditional agroforestry systems slowly disappeared. Today, agroforestry systems are again increasing in interest as they offer the potential to solve important ecological and, especially, biodiversity problems, while at the same time enabling the production of food, wood products and fodder for cattle. Although agroforestry systems offer many advantages, many farmers are sceptical of these systems and are critical and risk-averse with regard to adopting new practices. However, in comparison to traditional systems, modern agroforestry systems can be adapted to current farming practices. By selecting suitable trees and appropriate tree management, high-quality timber can be produced without influencing agricultural crops excessively. In future, agroforestry systems will become increasingly important as they offer the prospect of producing woody perennials for bioenergy on the same land area as food and/or fodder plants, while enhancing overall biodiversity.     

Improving adoptability of farm forestry in the Philippine uplands: a linear programming model

In the Philippines, smallholder farmers have become major timber producers. But the systems of timber production practiced have several limitations. In intercropping systems, the practice of severe branch and/or root pruning reduces tree-crop competition and increases annual crop yields, but is detrimental to tree growth and incompatible with commercial timber production. In even-aged woodlots, lack of regular income and poor tree growth, resulting from farmers’ reluctance to thin their plantations, are major constraints to adoption and profitable tree farming. In the municipality of Claveria, Misamis Oriental, the recent practice of planting trees on widely spaced (6–8 m) contour grass strips established for soil conservation suggests ways to improve the adoptability (i.e., profitability, feasibility and acceptability) of timber-based agroforestry systems. Assuming that financial benefits are the main objective of timber tree farmers, we develop a simple linear programming (LP) model for the optimal allocation of land to monocropping and tree intercropping that maximizes the net present value of an infinite number of rotations and satisfies farmers’ resource constraints and regular income requirements. The application of the LP model to an average farmer in Claveria showed that cumulative additions of widely spaced tree hedgerows provides higher returns to land, and reduce the risk of agroforestry adoption by spreading over the years labour and capital investment costs and the economic benefits accruing to farmers from trees. Therefore, incremental planting of widely spaced tree hedgerows can make farm forestry more adoptable and thus benefit a larger number of resource-constrained farmers in their evolution towards more diverse and productive agroforestry systems.     

A review of belowground interactions in agroforestry, focussing on mechanisms and management options

This review summarises current knowledge on root interactions in agroforestry systems, discussing cases from temperate and tropical ecosystems and drawing on experiences from natural plant communities where data from agroforestry systems are lacking. There is an inherent conflict in agroforestry between expected favourable effects of tree root systems, e.g. on soil fertility and nutrient cycling, and competition between tree and crop roots. Root management attempts to optimise root functions and to stimulate facilitative and complementary interactions. It makes use of the plasticity of root systems to respond to environmental factors, including other root systems, with altered growth and physiology. Root management tools include species selection, spacing, nutrient distribution, and shoot pruning, among others. Root distribution determines potential zones of root interactions in the soil, but are also a result of such interactions. Plants tend to avoid excessive root competition both at the root system level and at the single-root level by spatial segregation. As a consequence, associated plant species develop vertically stratified root systems under certain conditions, leading to complementarity in the use of soil resources. Parameters of root competitiveness, such as root length density, mycorrhization and flexibility in response to water and nutrient patches in the soil, have to be considered for predicting the outcome of interspecific root interactions. The patterns of root activity around individual plants differ between species; knowing these may help to avoid excessive competition and unproductive nutrient losses in agroforestry systems through suitable spacing and fertiliser placement. The possibility of alleviating root competition by supplying limiting growth factors is critically assessed. A wide range of physical, chemical and biological interactions occurs not only in spatial agroforestry, but also in rotational systems. In a final part, the reviewed information is applied to different types of agroforestry systems: associations of trees with annual crops; associations of trees with grasses or perennial fodder and cover crops; associations of different tree and shrub species; and improved fallows. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

P transformations in cacao agroforests soils in the Atlantic forest region of Bahia,Brazil

Little is known about the phosphorus (P) fractions and P lability of agroforest soils in tropical regions, particularly those of cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) agroforests. We hypothesized that the effect of P fertilization on the distribution of P fractions in the soil based on the source-sink relationship differs for different cacao agroforestry systems. The cacao agroforestry systems studied were the following: open cacao-cabruca, closed cacao-cabruca, cacao + erythrina, mixed cacao + rubber tree, and cacao + rubber tree intercropping. A natural forest and an unfertilized pasture were used as reference systems. The P fractions were determined using the Hedley sequential extraction method, and the P transformation processes were evaluated via structural equation modeling. The impact of low P fertilizer input on the P fractions varied according to the specific environmental conditions of each cacao production system. Consequently, there was high dissimilarity among all of the cacao sites. In all of the cacao agroforestry systems, there was an increase in inorganic P (Pi), especially the labile fraction (resin-Pi and NaHCO₃-Pi), but organic P (Po) increased only in the cacao + erythrina system and in the rubber tree planting row of the cacao + rubber tree intercropping system. As a result, the fitted structural models indicated that the inter-relationships of the geochemical processes were more important for determining the P availability than the biological processes. However, the Po concentrations and relative proportion were high in all of the cacao agroforestry systems, thereby revealing the high potential of supplying P to plants via the mineralization process in the eventual removal of mineral fertilization.     

Carbon stocks and biomass production of three different agroforestry systems in the temperate desert region of northwestern China

Carbon sequestration potential of agroforestry systems has attracted worldwide attention following the recognition of agroforestry as a greenhouse gas mitigation strategy. However, little is known about carbon stocks in poplar–maize intercropping systems in arid regions of China. This study was conducted in the temperate desert region of northwestern China, a region with large area of poplar–maize intercropping systems. The objective of this study was to assess biomass production and carbon stock under three poplar–maize intercropping systems (configuration A, 177 trees ha^?1; configuration B, 231 trees ha^?1; and configuration C, 269 trees ha^?1). We observed a significant difference in the carbon stock of poplar trees between the three configurations, with the highest value of 36.46 t ha^?1 in configuration C. The highest carbon stock of maize was achieved in configuration B, which was significantly higher than configuration A. The grain yield was highest in configuration A, but there was no significant difference from the other two configurations. In the soil system (0–100 cm depth), the total carbon stock was highest in configuration C (77.37 t ha^?1). The results of this study suggest that configuration C is the optimum agroforestry system in terms of both economic benefits and carbon sequestration.     

An equation for the replacement value of agroforestry

This article examines some of the existing analytical tools which quantify both the ecological and economic aspects of intercropping decisions. The characteristics of tree crops are evaluated to determine how a specific tool, the replacement value of intercropping (RVI), could be modified to better interpret agroforestry improvements to bush fallow farming systems. The modified equation captures some of the potential production improvements associated with agroforestry by accounting for the fraction of time that a field is actually in production over the long run. The result is an improved estimate of the average annual difference between a tree/crop polyculture and a monoculture system which employs fallows.     

Agroforestry and forestry-related practices in the Midwestern United States

A survey, conducted in 1990–1991 on agroforestry and forestry-related systems in eight Midwestern states, showed that three traditional and three nontraditional agroforestry systems are practiced in the region. Of 46 traditional systems reported, most common was agrisilviculture (28), then silvipasture (12) and agrisilvipasture (6). These systems often involved corn, soybeans, and hay planted with tree species for nut, timber, or Christmas tree production, and cattle. Non-traditional agroforestry systems were field windbreaks/shelterbelts (29), treeshrub intercropping systems (21), and boundary plantings (11). These systems involved a variety of northern hardwood species evergreens, and shrubs. There was also a preponderance of specialized systems (97) of growing trees with the production of mushrooms, nuts, syrup, wildlife, and other nonwood products. The survey is exploratory in nature and, although the results may not represent a complete count of people involved with agroforestry in the region, the numbers reported may indicate where a practice may be prevalent. The results reflect the fact that much work still needs to be done by agroforesters in this region. They also provide some basis for further research on more suitable systems, and for identifying other researchable questions on agroforestry for the region. The methodology also made possible a bigger nucleus for networking of agroforesters and other interested people in the Midwest. Finally, although not normally considered as agroforestry, the significance of the other specialized systems reported in this survey is that they offer varied ways of connecting forestry with other activities in a largely agricultural landscape, and that they may even be seen as opportunities for easier transition into agroforestry.