Litterfall in relation to stand parameters and climatic factors in Pinus brutia forests in Turkey

With this study we investigated the effective factors on annual amount of total litterfall and needle litterfall in Pinus brutia forests and estimated them with a regression model based on certain stand parameters. We studied 27 permanent plots representing different stand structure and environmental conditions in South-Western Turkey. Litterfall was collected in three month intervals corresponding to each of four seasons for a three-year period. We found a significant relationship between litterfall and stand properties such as crown closure (%), basal area (m²?ha^?1), stand stem volume (m³?ha^?1), above-ground biomass (t?ha^?1), mean annual volume increment (m³?ha^?1?yr^?1) and site index (T?=?75). Similar relationships also hold true between litterfall and each of such climatic factors as seasonal mean temperature (°C), relative humidity (%) and temperature/precipitation ratio (dimensionless). The mean annual litterfall considerably varied depending on stand characteristics and certain environmental factors. Both needle litterfall and total litterfall may be predicted for long term by regression models using certain stand parameters. Models developed for litterfall of P. brutia forests in this study may be used for national C inventory in Turkey.     

Differences in virulence of genets of Heterobasidion annosum and susceptibility of young plants of different conifer species and origins

Heterobasidion species are the most important pathogens causing root and stem rot on conifers in northern hemisphere forests. The host list of this complex is very wide and includes over 200 species of trees and shrubs. Among the members of this complex, Heterobasidion annosum s. s. has the largest host range. In this study, young plants of Pinus sylvestris, Picea orientalis, Abies nordmanniana, Cedrus libani and Pinus brutia (three different origins) were inoculated on the lower stem with known genets of Heterobasidion annosum s.s. collected from Pinus brutia stands in south-western Türkiye. Infection frequency, assessed as presence of the conidial stage in stem discs following incubation, in the inoculated seedlings was 100%. The Heterobasidion annosum s. s. isolates were re-isolated from all inoculated host species. Control seedlings showed no symptoms of disease. Mortality in inoculated plants was 11.5% of the 735 inoculated plants, which died over an 8-weeks incubation period. The isolates showed greater growth on Cedrus libani, Pinus sylvestris and Picea orientalis seedlings compared to other species tested. On the other hand, it was found that the least affected seedlings were Pinus brutia TB12 and Abies nordmanniana. This study proved that differences occur in aggressiveness of Heterobasidion annosum s. s. to host species. A striking point in the results is that, despite being the host species from which the isolates were obtained, Pinus brutia seedlings showed lower sensitivity to Heterobasidion annosum s. s. than the other conifer species tested. Inoculations of three different Pinus brutia provenances suggested there was no significant difference in mean lesion lengths and fungal growth values in Pinus brutia plants, except in Pinus brutia TB14, which was more susceptible to extension growth of the pathogen.     

Biosorption of methylene blue from aqueous solutions on β-cyclodextrin grafting wood flour copolymer: kinetic and equilibrium studies

The preparation, characterization, and environmental application of β-cyclodextrin/citric acid/wood flour (β-CD/CA/WF) graft copolymer wood-based biosorbent for methylene blue (MB) biosorption were investigated in this paper. The Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and the technique of phenolphthalein probe were used to characterize the grafting β-CD. Furthermore, the biosorption behavior of MB on β-CD/CA/WF graft copolymer was studied under various conditions of pH, contact time, and initial MB concentration. The results indicated that the biosorption of MB was dependent on both the initial MB concentration and the initial pH. Langmuir isotherm model fitted the isotherm data better than the Freundlich model. The adsorption kinetics followed the pseudo-second-order kinetic model, and intraparticle diffusion was one of the effective rate-controlling steps for the entire biosorption period. Equilibrium and kinetic results have implied that β-CD/CA/WF graft copolymer could be considered as a promising material for the adsorption of dye from aqueous solutions.     

Allometric equations for aboveground biomass estimation by size class for Pinus brutia Ten. trees growing in North and South Aegean Islands, Greece

Empirical allometric equations relating biomass of aboveground components to dendrometric variables for Pinus brutia Ten. trees are derived in this paper. They are based on data collected from Lesvos (North Aegean Sea) and Crete (South Aegean Sea) Islands. Comparisons to published equations for the same species growing in northwestern and southeastern Turkey, for Pinus nigra A. growing in Turkey and Pinus halepensis Mill. found in Western Aegean (island of Evia), are also presented. The biomass of branches from destructively sampled trees (twelve in Crete and six in Lesvos) was divided into four size classes (0?C0.63 cm, 0.64?C2.5 cm, 2.51?C7.61 cm, and 7.62?C22.8 cm). Tree crown biomass was calculated as the sum of the biomass in the four classes plus the fraction of stem above crown base. Over bark stem biomass was estimated through bole volume conversion based on wood density. The results showed clearly that, for a given diameter, the Cretan trees had more crown biomass and a higher share of small branches than trees on Lesvos, probably due to differences in environment and stand structure. Comparisons to published diameter versus crown biomass equations reveal a lower crown biomass for Turkish sites of Calabrian pine and Aleppo pine on Evia Island, while only Turkish Black pine seems to be comparable to the Calabrian pine on Crete. The derived allometries can be used for landscape fire behavior modeling, for ecophysiological studies and for the Kyoto protocol requirements of carbon changes in Pinus brutia Ten. forests located in northern and southern Greek sites.     

Regeneration dynamics of a mixed Mediterranean pine forest in the absence of fire

The aim of this study is to determine the competing regeneration and expansion patterns of two co-occurring pine species (Pinus brutia, Pinus nigra ssp. pallasiana), in a transitional montane Mediterranean zone. We measured the regeneration density of all woody species in 102 randomly located stands along an altitudinal gradient on the island of Lesbos, Greece. Individuals of pines were assigned to different size classes. Topographic factors (altitude, aspect, and soil depth) and light availability (through hemispherical photographs) were measured for each stand. Statistical analyses were applied to explore the effect of each factor on recruitment density of the competing pine species, and to elucidate patterns of interaction. Canopy openness was the most important parameter controlling the recruitment of P. brutia, while the regeneration density of P. nigra was mainly related to canopy openness and heat load. An idiosyncratic response of the recruitment vigour of the two species was identified along gradients of shade and drought stress. The decline in P. nigra recruitment density with drought conditions underlines threats to its population maintenance even in the absence of fire. On the other hand P. brutia seems to be a stronger invader in transitional zones. The studied species could be considered typical representatives of the two most widely distributed pine functional types across the Mediterranean basin, and our results agree with the theoretical ability of such species to maintain and expand their populations.     

Saproxylic beetle assemblages in the Mediterranean region: Impact of forest management on richness and structure

Forests cover almost 30% of the Mediterranean region today, yet forest management activities have influenced structure and composition of both natural and planted forests. To date no study has been conducted to evaluate the impact of forest management on saproxylic beetle assemblages, although it is known that the Mediterranean is a biodiversity hotspot with a long-lasting human pressure on natural habitats. We provide an overview of saproxylic beetle assemblages of three forest types (mature Pinus halepensis forests, mature Pinus brutia forests, young Quercus calliprinos forests) in the East Mediterranean region using a one-year sample from 12 forest plots located in the north of Israel.     

Provenance as a factor in susceptibility of Pinus halepensis to Matsucoccus joseph (homoptera: Margarodidae)

International provenance trials of Pinus halepensis and related species, P. brutia and P. eldarica, allowed study of the relationship between seed origin of P. halepensis and susceptibility to the Israeli pine bast scale (Matsucoccus josephi, Homoptera: Margarodidae), and the infestation of P. brutia and P. eldarica by this pest. The Greek and Israeli provenances displayed a lower susceptibility to attacks by the pest than did the North African and Spanish provenances. The lower susceptibility is expressed by a higher percentage of unaffected trees, low rate of injury and low density of Matsucoccus ovisacs. Two different mechanisms may be responsible for the relative resistance of P. halepensis of the Greek and the Israeli populations. It is possible that resistance to the pest was transferred from P. brutia to P. halepensis in Greece, where the natural distribution of these pine species overlaps or overlapped. On the other hand, the relative resistance of the Israeli provenances may be due to long coexistence in Israel of M. josephi and P. halepensis.     

Adaptation of herbaceous plant species in the understorey of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pinus brutia</Emphasis>

Most of Pinus brutia (Ten.) Holmboe forests are grazed, as silvopastoralism is well adapted in the Mediterranean environment. However, little attention has been paid to the demographic dynamic of the understorey vegetation even though it is strongly affected by the absorbed radiation. The purpose of this study was to examine the adaptation of herbaceous plant species under a Pinus brutia canopy, in Northern Greece. Monocultures of four plant groups (annual and perennial grasses, annual and perennial legumes) were sown in experimental areas of 50%, 70% and 100% light intensity. The density of annual and perennial grasses and perennial legumes were decreased by the shade cast by the Pinus brutia canopy. Population density of the annual legumes was little affected by light intensity: the annual grasses Bromus mollis L. and Lolium rigidum Gaudin; the perennial grasses Dactylis glomerata L. var. palestine, Festuca arundinacea and Agropyron cristatum (L.) Gaertn; the perennial legume Medicago sativa L. var. romana; the annual legumes Medicago lupulina L. and all the tested varieties of Trifolium subterraneum adapted well to the 50% light intensity habitat.     

Rinden- und holzbohrende Insektenarten in Kiefern (Pinus halepensis,P. brutia undP. nigra) nach Waldbränden in Griechenland

Zusammenfassung Aus Holzproben von waldbrand-geschädigten Bäumen dreier Kiefernarten (Pinus halepensis, P. brutia undP. nigra) aus verschieden hoch gelegenen Regionen Griechenlands wurden 24 Arten von rinden- und holzbrütenden Insekten gezogen. Mit Ausnahme der HolzwespeSirex noctilio gehörten alle den Käfern (Coleoptera) an mit den 3 Hauptfamilien Scolytidae (8 Arten), Buprestidae (7) und Cerambycidae (6). Die Verteilung und Umweltansprüche der 24 Insektenarten wurden näher betrachtet.

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Insects attacking burnt pine trees (Pinus halepensis, P. brutia andP. nigra) in Greece

After a long lasting study of a great number ofPinus halepensis, P. brutia andP. nigra trees which were burnt or damaged by the developed high temperatures during forest fires in Greece, there were identified 24 species of bark and wood boring insects. Except one hymenopterous the rest were beetles (Coleoptera) which principally belonged to the families Scolytidae, Buprestidae and Cerambycidae.

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Mit einer Tabelle und einer Abbildung

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Gefördert durch das griechische Landwirtschaftsministerium; supported by the Greek Ministry of Agriculture.     

Determination of lignin and extractive content of Turkish Pine (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Pinus brutia</Emphasis> Ten.) trees using near infrared spectroscopy and multivariate calibration

Determination of quality parameters such as lignin and extractive content of wood samples by wet chemistry analyses takes a long time. Near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy coupled with multivariate calibration offers a fast and nondestructive alternative to obtain reliable results. However, due to the complexity of the NIR spectra, some wavelength selection is generally required to improve the predictive ability of multivariate calibration methods. Pinus brutia Ten. is the most growing pine species in Turkey. Its rotation period is around 80 years; the forest products industry has widely accepted the use of Pinus brutia Ten. because of its ability to grow on a wide range of sites and its suitability to produce desirable products. Pinus brutia Ten. is widely used in construction, window door panel, floor covering, etc. Determination of lignin and extractive content of wood provides information to tree breeders on when to cut and how much chemicals are needed for the pulping and bleaching process. In this study, 58 samples of Pinus brutia Ten. trees were collected in Isparta region of Turkey, and their lignin and extractive content were determined with standard reference (TAPPI) methods. Then, the same samples were scanned with near-infrared spectrometer between 1,000 and 2,500 nm in diffuse reflectance mode, and multivariate calibration models were built with genetic inverse least squares method for both lignin and extractive content using the concentration information obtained from wet standard reference method. Overall, standard error of calibration (SEC) and standard error of prediction (SEP) ranged between 0.35% (w/w) and 2.40% (w/w).     

Integrating pine honeydew honey production into forest management optimization

Pine honeydew honey is an economically important non-wood forest product from eastern Mediterranean Pinus brutia forests, which are also important for timber production. Pine honey is produced by bees that feed on the honeydew secretions of Marchalina hellenica, a scale insect that infests pine stands and feeds on pine sap. The aim of this study was to optimize the joint production of pine honeydew honey and timber by maximizing the soil expectation value of pine stands. The simulation of P. brutia stand dynamics and timber production in healthy and infested stands is based on individual-tree growth and yield models that account for the effect of M. hellenica on tree- and stand-level growth and mortality. The optimization procedure uses a direct search method based on nonlinear programming. The results suggest that pine stands growing on good sites should be managed using rather short rotations and mainly aiming at timber production. In contrast, forest management in medium- and poor-quality sites should aim at longer rotations by taking advantage of the joint production of pine honey and timber assortments. Honey-oriented forest management can be much more profitable than timber production in stands growing on medium and poor sites. Pine honey represents an opportunity to increase the value and economic profitability of P. brutia forests.     

六盘山主要植被类型的生物量及其分配

2009年,在宁夏六盘山南部林区香水河小流域,调查研究了主要森林类型的生物量及其层次和器官分配。结果表明:不同森林的活体植被总生物量(t·hm^-2)差别较大,依次为华山松(102.70)>桦木林(84.42)>山杨林(79.97)>华北落叶松人工林(58.37)>疏林(44.91),按各类森林面积加权平均为78.37,远高于灌丛(20.77)、草地(1.07)和草甸(2.29)。各类森林的枯落物现存量(t·hm^-2)为:华北落叶松人工林(18.21)>华山松林(11.99)>桦木林(10.90)>山杨林(7.67)>疏林(7.06),也都远高于灌木林(3.13)、草甸(0.82)和草地(0.49)。森林生物量集中在乔木层(占91.04%),灌木层仅占8.09%,草本层更低至0.87%。森林生物量的器官分配比例:乔木层为树干(54.06%)>枝(21.04%)>根(16.92%)>皮(5.34%)>叶(2.65%);灌木层为枝干(62.68%)>根(30.55%)>叶(6.77%);草本层为地上茎叶(58.82%)>根(41.18%)。乔木层地上与地下生物量比值的平均值为4.49,几种阔叶林都在4.0左右,但华北落叶松林为6.41,华山松林为5.80,都远大于灌木林的2.82、草地的1.89及草甸的1.20。不同林分的生物量均随林龄和林冠郁闭度的增大而几乎线性增加,并随林分密度的增加而增大,但在密度超过900株·hm^-2后生物量增速减缓并渐趋其最大值。     

Tree effects on the chemical topsoil features of oak, beech and pine forests

We aimed to study tree effects on the chemical properties of forest soils. We compared soil features of three types of forest ecosystems, each with four stands (replicates): beech forests (Fagus sylvatica), oak forests (dominated by Quercus pyrenaica) and pine plantations (Pinus sylvestris). Five samples from the top 10 cm of soil were taken per stand, from which pH, organic matter content (O.M.), total nitrogen (N) and available calcium (Ca²⁺), magnesium (Mg²⁺), potassium (K⁺) and sodium (Na⁺) were determined. Litter layer depth was measured at each soil sampling point. We also measured tree density and crown diameters at each stand. Our results indicated that soil samples from the four pine plantation stands were more similar while oak and beech stands were characterised by great variability in terms of soil properties and leaf litter depth. Although the identity of the dominant tree species significantly influenced several topsoil chemical properties (increase in pH and available cations in oak forests and higher organic matter and total nitrogen in beech and pine ecosystems), there were other important factors affecting soil features that may be taken under consideration. Differences between soil properties of the three types of forest ecosystems were mainly related to the characteristics of the litter layer and less related to the tree layer structure. Finally, the establishment of pine plantations in naturally deciduous tree areas made the topsoil features more homogeneous.     

Allometric equations for tree species and carbon stocks for forests of northwestern Mexico

Allometric equations were developed and applied to forest inventory data to estimate biomass and carbon stocks for temperate species and forests of Durango and Chihuahua and for tropical dry forests of Sinaloa, Mexico. A total of 872 trees were harvested and dissected into their component parts: leaves and branches, boles, and coarse roots. Coarse roots of 40 temperate trees ranging in diameter at breast height (DBH) from 6.0 to 52.9 cm were excavated in their entirety (i.e., >0.5 cm diameter). The species sampled (number of trees) in tropical dry forests (39) were Lysiloma divaricata (Jacq) Macbr. (10), Haematoxylon brasiletto Karst. (10), Cochlospermum vitifolium (Wild.) (5), Ceiba acuminata (S. Watson) Rose (5), Bursera penicillata (B. inopinnata) (5), and Jatropha angustifolia Mull. Arg. (4) and in temperate forests (833) were Quercus spp. (118) (Q. rugosa Neé, 15, Quercus sideroxylla Humb. & Bonpl, 51, Quercus spp., 52), Pinus herrerae Martinez 1940 (19), Pinus oocarpa Schiede ex Schlectendal 1838 (31), Pinus engelmannii Carriere 1854 (7), Psudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco (19), Pinus leiophylla Schiede ex Schlectendal et Chamisso 1831 (27), Pinus teocote Schiede ex Schlectendal et Chamisso (55), Pinus ayacahuite Ehrenb. ex Schltdl. (58), Pinus cooperi Blanco (48), Pinus durangensis Martinez 1942 (385), and Pinus arizonica Engelmann 1879 (66). Allometric equations having only DBH as an independent variable were developed for each component of each species. Since Pinus herrerae, Pinus engelmannii, Pinus oocarpa and Pseudotsuga menziensii had a small number of trees, an individual allometric equation was developed for these species. We used non-linear regression to fit parameters of the typical allometric power equation. The resulting 31 equations (10 species or groups of species, three biomass components; bole, branch and leaves, and total aerial; and the generalized equation for coarse roots) fit the data well and enable the user to predict biomass by component for each of the 10 different groups of species or each of six temperate species. A single allometric equation that incorporates the basic specific gravity for aboveground biomass of all temperate tree species also fit the data well, and this equation provides both the detail and the accuracy supplied by species-specific, plant-part-specific equations. Biomass equations coupled with forest inventory data for temperate (637 circular, 1/10 ha plots) and tropical dry forests (166 20 m × 20 m-quadrats) of northwestern Mexico predict a mean (confidence intervals) of 130 Mg ha⁻¹ (4.2 Mg ha⁻¹) and 73 Mg ha⁻¹ (7.1 Mg ha⁻¹) for total tree and total aboveground biomass, respectively. Large sample sizes and the economic and ecological importance of the species studied make this data set uniquely useful for biomass estimations and for understanding the inherent heterogeneity of tree structure in dynamic tropical and temperate environments of northwestern Mexico.     

New hosts for Lecanosticta acicola and Dothistroma septosporum in newly established arboreta in Spain

A historical outbreak of needle blight disease was recorded during 2018 to 2019 in plantations of Pinus radiata and Pinus nigra in the North of Spain. The main pathogens involved in this historical outbreak were identified as Lecanosticta acicola and Dothistroma septosporum. Recently, a variety of tree species in three arboreta planted between 2011 and 2013 in the Basque Country as part of the European project REINFFORCE were showing symptoms of needle blight and defoliation. The aim of this study was to determine which pine species were affected with these pathogens. Tree species sampled included several provenances of P. brutia, P. elliottii, P. nigra, P. pinaster, P. pinea, P. ponderosa, P. sylvestris and P. taeda. Using molecular identification methods, Lecanosticta acicola was confirmed infecting Pinus brutia (Provenance: Alexandropolis, Greece and var. eldarica, Crimea) and represents a new host species for this pathogen. Pinus elliottii (Provenance: Georgia, USA) and P. ponderosa (Provenance: Central California, USA) are new host reports of L. acicola for Spain. Dothistroma septosporum was found for the first time on P. brutia (Provenance: Marmaris, Turkey) and P. ponderosa (Provenance: Oregon, USA) in Spain and was also detected infecting P. nigra (Provenance: Sologne Vayrières, France).     

Does soil organic matter variation affect the retention of NH4 and NO3 in forest ecosystems?

Human activities have fundamentally changed global nitrogen (N) cycling, leading to elevated N deposition in most parts of the world. The fate of deposited N, whether being retained to sustain plant growth or causing ecosystem N saturation, is critical to the global carbon (C) cycling and local environment. In a short-term laboratory experiment, we used ¹⁵N-labeled NH₄⁺ and NO₃⁻ to study the fate of N inputs in forest soils and what regulates N retention. Soils with a wide range of organic matter content and other attributes were collected from a 70-year-old plantation containing monotypic stands of Norway spruce (Picea abies), red pine (Pinus resinosa), sugar maple (Acer saccharum), and red oak (Quercus rubra), and separated into 0-5 cm and 5-15 cm layers. Nitrogen added to the soil was either immediately extracted (Time 0: T0) with K₂SO₄ solution, or incubated for 7 d (T7) and then extracted. Retention of ¹⁵N into the non-extractable soil pool at T0 was limited; but after the 7-d incubation, between 20 and 70% of the ¹⁵NH₄⁺ was retained. Nitrification transformed on average 50% of the ¹⁵NH₄⁺ into ¹⁵NO₃⁻ during the incubation while retention of ¹⁵NO₃⁻ at T7 remained low (7.40 ± 1.08%). Retention of ¹⁵NH₄⁺ into non-extractable soil at T7 was positively correlated to the percentage of soil organic matter (SOM) (r² = 0.323, P < 0.001), and was significantly higher (P < 0.001) in the high-SOM 0-5 cm layer than in the low-SOM 5-15 cm layer. Conversion of ¹⁵NH₄⁺ to ¹⁵NO₃⁻ during incubation significantly reduced the ¹⁵NH₄⁺ retention (P < 0.001). Our results suggest that the variations of SOM and other soil attributes play strong roles in the retention of newly deposited inorganic N and could affect forest ecosystem responses to chronic N deposition.     

Variability and grouping of leaf traits in multi-species reforestation (Leyte,Philippines)

Conventional reforestation in the tropics often results in stands with low tree species and functional diversities. A different approach to reforestation, the so-called rainforestation, has been developed in the Philippines. It emphasizes mixed stands and the preferential use of native species supplemented by fruit trees. In such stands, we studied several functional leaf traits (stomatal conductance for water vapour, leaf morphology and chemistry) with the objectives (1) of assessing the species-specific variation of leaf traits and in particular that of maximal leaf stomatal conductance (g_smax), (2) of determining relationships between g_smax and other tree variables, and (3) of assessing whether leaf traits group the species studied. Sixteen broad-leaved species were studied, using five individual trees per species and ten fully expanded sunlit leaves per individual tree. Species-specific g_smax differed fivefold (165–772 mmol m⁻² s⁻¹). Among studied leaf traits, only the carbon isotope ratio δ¹³C exhibited a simple linear correlation with g_smax. A separate analysis for dipterocarp species indicated a strong negative relationship between g_smax and specific leaf area (SLA) (r² = 0.96, P < 0.001, n = 5). For all 16 species, a multiple linear regression with the combinations leaf size/tree height and leaf size/canopy projection area also resulted in significant relationships, which partly explained the variability in g_smax. A multivariate approach (principal component analysis) combining the leaf traits provided an explanation of 75% of the variability along the first two axes. All native dipterocarps species, a native Guttiferae and the durian tree (Durio zibethinus) were associated with more depleted δ¹³C, small leaves and a low leaf width to length ratio. Two exotic species frequently used for reforestation (Gmelina arborea and Swietenia macrophylla) and the native early successional Terminalia microcarpa were differentiated by their high SLA and high leaf nitrogen content per leaf area (N_area). Both species of Artocarpus (A. blancoi and A. odoratissima) were also differentiated and had large leaves with low SLA and low N_area. These associations of species with leaf traits as variables indicate that species have different leaf investment strategies, which may imply that there are differences in whole plant performance. We conclude that rainforestation creates substantial variation in leaf traits, which is based on the combination of species with different leaf trait groupings. This can be seen as an important step towards – partly – restoring the functional diversity which characterizes many natural tropical rainforests.     

Twentieth-century decline of large-diameter trees in Yosemite National Park,California, USA

Studies of forest change in western North America often focus on increased densities of small-diameter trees rather than on changes in the large tree component. Large trees generally have lower rates of mortality than small trees and are more resilient to climate change, but these assumptions have rarely been examined in long-term studies. We combined data from 655 historical (1932–1936) and 210 modern (1988–1999) vegetation plots to examine changes in density of large-diameter trees in Yosemite National Park (3027 km²). We tested the assumption of stability for large-diameter trees, as both individual species and communities of large-diameter trees. Between the 1930s and 1990s, large-diameter tree density in Yosemite declined 24%. Although the decrease was apparent in all forest types, declines were greatest in subalpine and upper montane forests (57.0% of park area), and least in lower montane forests (15.3% of park area). Large-diameter tree densities of 11 species declined while only 3 species increased. Four general patterns emerged: (1) Pinus albicaulis, Quercus chrysolepis, and Quercus kelloggii had increases in density of large-diameter trees occur throughout their ranges; (2) Pinus jeffreyi, Pinus lambertiana, and Pinus ponderosa, had disproportionately larger decreases in large-diameter tree densities in lower-elevation portions of their ranges; (3) Abies concolor and Pinus contorta, had approximately uniform decreases in large-diameter trees throughout their elevational ranges; and (4) Abies magnifica, Calocedrus decurrens, Juniperus occidentalis, Pinus monticola, Pseudotsuga menziesii, and Tsuga mertensiana displayed little or no change in large-diameter tree densities. In Pinus ponderosa–Calocedrus decurrens forests, modern large-diameter tree densities were equivalent whether or not plots had burned since 1936. However, in unburned plots, the large-diameter trees were predominantly A. concolor, C. decurrens, and Q. chrysolepis, whereas P. ponderosa dominated the large-diameter component of burned plots. Densities of large-diameter P. ponderosa were 8.1 trees ha⁻¹ in plots that had experienced fire, but only 0.5 trees ha⁻¹ in plots that remained unburned.     

A growth and yield model for even-aged <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pinus brutia</Emphasis> Ten. stands in Syria

Pinus brutia Ten. subspecies brutia, which occurs in the Eastern Mediterranean region, is the main forest species in Syria and important for multi-purpose forestry. In this study, 6,631 10-year past growth diameter increment measurements were taken in 83 temporary sample plots. The current breast height diameter of all trees was measured and a sample of trees was measured for height and age. The plots were placed so as to capture the whole range of variation in site quality, stand age and stand density. The data were used to develop the following models: