Effect of perennial mulches on moisture conservation and soil-building properties through agroforestry

The effect of perennial mulches on moisture status, soil characteristics and on crop yields (maize-wheat rotation) was evaluated from 1986 through 1989 in a silty loam acidic soil (pH 5.6, PWP 11.4 & FC 25.6%) at the Research Farm of the Central Soil & Water Conservation Research & Training Institute, Dahra Dun. Mulch materials, comprised of leaves of Leucaena leucocephala, Eucalyptus hybrid, Shorea robusta, Broussonatia paprifera or Puerarua hirsuta (chopped) @ 4 t/ha were applied just after sowing of wheat and the residual effect of applied mulch was seen in kharif maize each year.The distribution of profile moisture revealed that at the time of sowing of wheat the soil water content did not differ with depth (0–90 cm). With the advancement of time, the magnitude of moisture distribution changed. At various crop growth stages the highest amount of water was found in the plots mulched with S. robusta followed by E. hybrid. All the mulch materials, except B. paprifera, lowered the soil pH, the maximum effect was noted with E. hybrid (pH reduced from 5.6 to 5.0). After three years, N and K content of soil were found to be greatest with the application of L. leucocephala whereas the highest P content was observed in B. paprifera mulched plots.The highest wheat grain yield (2.46 t/ha) was recorded with L. leucocephala and minimum under control (2.11 t/ha) which represents a gain of 11.7 per cent. Maximum maize grain yield (0.73 t/ha) was found in S. robusta mulched plots followed by L. leucocephala (0.63 t/ha) and the minimum in the control (0.51 t/ha).     

不同坡向坡位对桉树造林成活率的影响及生长效应分析

分析不同坡向、坡位对桉树造林成活率、树高及胸径的影响。采用桉树组培苗木进行造林试 验,以1年生桉树人工林样地调查数据为研究对象,调查造林效果,记录样地坡向、坡位,并实测每 株林木的树高和胸径。结果表明,坡向或坡向与坡位二者的交互作用对桉树造林成活率、树高、胸 径的影响程度均强于坡位,其中坡向对桉树造林成活率及当年生长量的影响程度最大;不同坡向对 桉树造林成活率及当年生长量的影响极为显著,造林成活率受坡向的影响最大,不同坡位对桉树造 林成活率及当年生长量的影响不显著,坡位对造林成活率、树高、胸径的影响较小;从阳坡、半阳坡、 半阴坡、阴坡光照依次逐渐减弱,桉树造林成活率分别为90.83%、84.18%、77.34%、75.95%,平均 树高从8.59 m减小到7.57 m,平均胸径从6.26 cm 减小到5.43 cm;从阳坡到阴坡,桉树造林成活 率、平均树高、平均胸径均呈现逐渐减小的趋势,而随不同坡位的降低,其变化不明显,但均在中坡 表现出最小值。     

A comparative assessment on regeneration status of indigenous woody plants in Eucalyptus grandis plantation and adjacent natural forest

Diversity, density and species composition of naturally regenerated woody plants under Eucalyptus grandis plantation and the adjacent natural forest were investigated and compared. Twenty plots, with an area of 20 m × 20 m for each, were established in both of E. grandis plantation and adjacent natural forest, independently. In each plot, species name, abundance, diameter and height were recorded. Numbers of seedling were collected in five sub-plots (4 m²) within each major plot. A total of 46 species in the plantation, and 52 species in the natural forest, which belongs to 36 families were recorded. The diversity of species (H′) is 2.19 in the plantation and 2.74 in the natural forest. The density of understory woody plant was 3842 stems/ha in the plantation and 4122 stems/ha in the natural forest. The densities of seedlings in the natural forest and the plantation were 8101 stems/ha and 4151 stems/ha, respectively. High similarity of woody species composition was found between the natural forest and the plantation. The E. grandis plantation was found favoring the regeneration and growth of Millitia ferruginia and Coffea arabica in a much better way than other underneath woody species.     

Financial appraisal for some afforestation species in Bihar (India) under the risk of illicit felling

The major afforestation schemes in the state of Bihar (India) consist of the coppicing of the degenerated natural forests and/or raising plantations of various species at a spacing of 2 m × 2 m. Shorea robusta is the main species of the natural forests whereas Eucalyptus hybrid and Dalbergia sissoo are the two main plantation species. This paper sets out to undertake a detailed financial cost-benefit analysis for the three species separately and discusses some management options regarding the choice of rotation for each species under the risk of illicit felling. Three quality classes—I, II and III—have been considered separately for all the three species. The yield of the plantations of Dalbergia sissoo and Eucalyptus hybrid for a spacing of 2 m × 2 m, hitherto subject to value judgements, have been estimated using the regression model for variable stocking density. The net present value per hectare has been selected as the criterion for appraisal and its value for the three species for the management options considered has been calculated for one rotation as well as for an infinite series of rotations. The risk of illicit felling has been accounted for by adding a premium to the pure temporal discount rate. The paper shows that for a given species the best management option would be different for different quality classes. In general, plantations in quality class I are viable, but for quality classes II and III plantations are worth undertaking only if the illicit felling is reasonably under control to justify low discount rates.     

Analysis of Spacing for Spotted Gum Plantations for Maximizing Merchantable Logs' Volume in Southeast Queensland,Australia

Spotted gum (Corymbia citriodora subspecies Variegata) has the potential to be the major hardwood species for large-scale plantations in Southeast Queensland, Australia, but production research is limited due to the lack of age of research plots. Optimal spacing is a major subject of concern. Based on time series data from a spotted gum experiment site, growth performance was analyzed for five spacing levels: 11.3 m?×?11.3 m (78 stems ha^?1), 7.4 m?×?7.4 m (182 stems ha^?1), 5.4 m?×?5.4 m (343 stems ha^?1), 3.6 m?×?3.6 m (771 stems ha^?1), and 2.9 m?×?2.9 m (1189 stems ha^?1). The major objective was assumed to be to maximize total merchantable log volume. A growth model was produced, and the mean diameter at breast height (DBH) and total merchantable log volume for each spacing level at a range of harvesting ages were estimated. From the analysis, the spacing level of 5.4 m?×?5.4 m was found to be optimal for maximizing merchantable log volume to a 10-cm small-end diameter. Further analysis of mean DBH, height, and volume of the largest 200 and 250 trees from this spacing level indicates that merchantable log volume could be maximized by retaining the 250 largest trees ha^?1. The total financial revenue from the best spacing level in 25 and 30 yr are predicted to be Australian dollars (A$) 13,637 and A$17,779 ha^?1, respectively. If full rotation data could be obtained, more reliable models could be produced, and a more accurate financial estimate could be made.     

以芳香油和薪材为最终产品的桉树幼林地上部分生物量研究*

在2年生的桉树引种试验林内,对蓝桉和新引种的5种其他桉树的地上部分生物量进行了测定。研究发现,当轮伐期为2年时,不同桉树的芳香油和薪材收获量差异显著,而同一树种的芳香油和薪材产量在不同造林密度之间无显著差异。史密斯桉和贝克桉的芳香油和桉树脑含量均高于蓝桉,是生产桉树芳香油和薪材的优良树种,在我国亚热带地区有进一步试验和推广的价值。     

Trade-offs among establishment success,stem morphology and productivity of underplanted Toona ciliata: Effects of nurse-species and thinning density

Toona ciliata (Australian red cedar), a valuable hardwood species, requires a nurse-tree overstorey to prevent damage from frost and drought in some regions of north-eastern Argentina. Different nurse-species offer different degrees of protection, resource competition, and thinning revenues. In addition, choice of nurse-species will influence trade-offs between T. ciliata establishment success, stem quality and productivity as well as revenue from intermediate and final harvests. We tested the effects of overstorey species and planting density on underplanted T. ciliata survival, stem morphology and growth. Initial stand densities of nurse-species Pinus taeda (625 stems/ha), P. elliottii × P. caribaea (625 stems/ha), and Grevillea robusta (833 stems/ha) were thinned by 0%, 25%, 50%, and 75% in three experiments, each using a randomized block design. Initial mortality, light availability and growth of T. ciliata, as well as growth of its nurse-trees, were measured before and two years after thinning. In the third year, we characterized T. ciliata stem morphology (straightness and height-to-diameter-ratio) and destructively harvested a subsample of T. ciliata in order to investigate T. ciliata biomass production and allocation patterns in response to overstorey species, thinning density and light availability. T. ciliata mortality was lower when planted under G. robusta than the pines, and increased in plots with greater exposure to solar radiation. T. ciliata productivity was also greater under G. robusta than under the pines, and was generally greatest where any of the nurse-species were thinned by 75%. Stem form was best when growing under P. taeda and in stands thinned by 50%, regardless of nurse-species. With the exception of early mortality, light levels appeared to have limited effects on T. ciliata growth dynamics. Neither growth rate nor stem morphology was strongly correlated with light availability. Total overstorey basal-area was highest in P. taeda stands and individual overstorey tree growth generally increased with decreasing stand densities, except for slower height growth of G. robusta in more open stands. Thinning operations resulted in sawn-wood revenue for the pine species only. Because stand productivity and stem quality were optimized under different nurse-species and thinning treatments, we conclude that the choice of nurse-species and thinning intensity will depend on management objectives and will change with market preferences and conditions.     

A Comparison of the Utility and Agronomic Traits of Indigenous and Exotic Trees in the Mount Kenya Region

On-farm indigenous (Cordia africana) and exotic (Grevillea robusta) tree species were compared in terms of the quality of their utility and their agronomic traits in the Meru Central district of Kenya. These two species are the most common indigenous and exotic trees, respectively, among the recorded 117 trees on farms. Interviews with farmers and collected documents on tree felling and planting showed that farmers considered C. africana to be more useful than G. robusta. However, farmers wanted to plant more G. robusta than C. africana because the easily established and fast growing G. robusta has a higher short-term contribution to the household economy. The advantages of C. africana, however, should be redefined in terms of its long-term contribution to farmers; C. africana contributes to farming more effectively than does G. robusta. The lower growth performance and relative difficulty in the establishment of C. africana can be compensated for by its higher timber quality and coppicing ability.     

Characteristics of soil water consumption of typical shrubs (Caragana microphylla) and trees (Pinus sylvestris) in the Horqin Sandy Land area, China

Reforestation is one of the most effective ways to reduce the impacts of desertification. Caragana microphylla Lam. and Pinus sylvestris var. mongolica Litrin have been widely used to stabilize shifting sands in the Horqin sandy land area since the 1980s. However, soil water depletion has been of major concern in C. microphylla and P. ongolica plantations and in many places current soil moisture cannot meet the demand of growing plants. To determine the water budget of C. microphylla and P. mongolica plantations, we studied the effect of plantations on soil moisture and assessed the evapotranspiration in plantations of both species. Investigations were conducted at a fenced plot at Wulanaodu (42°29′N, 119°30′E, 479 m a. s. l), located at the western edge of the Horqin Sandy Land area in Inner Mongolia, northern China. Five year old C. microphylla and seven year old P. mongolica plants were selected from the plantations and transplanted to iron boxes (400 cm×200 cm×120 cm) which can drain extra water. Plant spacing of 1 m×1 m was applied to P. mongolica, and two plant spacings of 1 m×1 m and 1 m×2 m to C. microphylla. The transplanted plants grew for two years in the boxes. Soil moisture from soil surface to a depth 80 cm were measured at 20 cm intervals in boxes every 10 d (2004) or 3 d (2005) during the growing season with a TDR water meter. The evapotranspiration was estimated from a mathematical formula and the characteristics of soil water consumption and evapotranspiration of these two plantations were analyzed. The soil water of P. mongolica was more than that of C. microphylla at the same 1 m×1m spacing. The soil water of C. microphylla with the 1 m×2 m spacing was more than that of the 1 m×1 m spacing. The evapotranspiration ranged from high to low as follows: C. microphylla (1 m×1 m), C. microphylla (1 m×2 m) and P. mongolica (1 m×1 m) during the growing seasons. The evapotranspiration of individual plants ranging from high to low was C. microphylla (1 m×2 m), C. microphylla (1 m×1 m), and P. mongolica (1 m×1 m) during the growing season. C. microphylla grown for five year consumed more water than P. mongolica grown for seven years at the same spacing. __________ Translated from Acta Ecological Sinica, 2008, 28(5): 1981–1990 [译自: 生态学报]     

Effect of environment on the response of Eucalyptus clones to inoculation with Cryphonectria cubensis

The ascomycete Cryphonectria cubensis causes severe losses in Eucalyptus plantations in South Africa and selection programmes for disease tolerance are necessary. The aim of this study was to use two C. cubensis inoculation trials, planted at different locations to assess the disease susceptibility of the clones and the effect of the environment on disease development. These two trials consisted each of 21 Eucalyptus clones (E. grandis, E. grandis × camaldulensis and E. grandis × urophylla). All trees were inoculated with a single virulent strain of C. cubensis and lesion widths measured 6 and 12 months after inoculation. Clones differed significantly in their tolerance to C. cubensis. Further, disease severity differed depending on the geographical location of the trial. A significant clone × locality (genotype × environment) interaction was observed. Therefore, screening for disease resistance should take place only in areas where clones will be commercially grown.     

Influence of Initial Spacing on Growth and Branching Characteristics of Cordia africana Trees Established on Eritrean Highland

The study reports on the influence of initial spacing on growth and branching habit of Cordia africana trees established on Eritrean highland. The initial spacings used in this study were 1.0×1.0 m, 1.5×1.5 m, 2.0×2.0 m, 2.5×2.5 m, 3.0×3.0 m, and 3.5×3.5 m; these are equivalent to 1 m², 2.25 m², 4 m², 6.25 m², 9 m² and 12.25 m² in growing space per tree, respectively. No significant relationship between spacing and tree height was found, but increased spacing increased crown diameter and root-collar-diameter. On the other hand, an increase in spacing reduced wood quality because it increased branch diameter (knot size). Thus, from a wood quality perspective, adopting close spacing in plantations of C. africana could be advantageous.     

Long-term growth performance of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cordia africana</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Grevillea robusta</Emphasis> trees in the Mount Kenya region

This study examined the long-term growth performance of Cordia africana and Grevillea robusta, which are the most common indigenous and exotic trees, respectively, associated with crops in the Mount Kenya region. Local farmers prefer G. robusta to C. africana as on-farm trees because they believe that G. robusta grows faster. Measurements of height and diameter at breast height were made of 47 C. africana and 89 G. robusta trees for which the age was established based on interviews with farmers. The oldest G. robusta and C. africana trees were 55 and 46 years old, respectively. The apical growth rate for G. robusta was greater than that for C. africana in Katheri (a humid area). The differences between the two species were less remarkable in Ruiri (a dry-subhumid area). There was no notable difference in the radial growth performance of the two species in Katheri and Ruiri. These comparisons suggest that the long-term growth performance of C. africana is not necessarily inferior to that of G. robusta.     

桉属树种与种源、家系比较试验

以９个桉属树种，其中８个种泊来自原产地，７个家系和７个杂种后代来自国内次生资源进行混合比较，５年生评价结果表明：树种、种源、家系呈极显著差异；尾叶桉及其两个种源、尾巨桉杂交种细叶桉的１３５４４种源适合本试验区戒严和格短轮伐期经营，可获得适应性和生长指标平均值超过平均水平３５％的选择效应。其中最优为１４５３４号尾叶桉种源，５年生单株材积０．０５０．６１ｍ＾３／株（８９．０３ｍ＾３／ｈｍ＾２）。种子采     

Effect of tree spacing on growth and wood density of 38-year-old Cariniana legalis trees in Brazil

Average wood density of 38-year-old Cariniana legalis (Mart.) Kuntze, a Brazilian native forest species, was found to increase with faster growth and lower stocking, while decreasing from pith to bark. A complete randomised block design was planted with five blocks. Ten trees were harvested in each of three spacing treatments. We hypothesised that the stand stemwood production would not significantly differ depending on tree spacing. However, tree growth would be higher in the wider spacing and wood density would be higher in the narrower spacing. The diameter growth of trees was higher at 3 m × 2.5 m than at 3 m × 2 m and 3 m × 1.5 m. Nevertheless, this higher individual tree growth at 3 m × 2.5 m did not compensate for the greater tree stock density at 3 m × 1.5 m with stand stemwood production at 38 years of 530 m3 ha^?1 and 649 m³ ha^?1, respectively. These results suggest that C. legalis, which can produce up to 17 m³ ha^?1 y^?1 of medium-to high-density timber – about 800 kg m^?3 – is a promising native species for forest plantations in Brazil.     

Infestation Density of Eucalyptus Gall Wasp,Leptocybe invasa Fisher and La Salle (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) on Five Commercially Grown Eucalyptus Species in Tanzania

This study explores infestation density of Leptocybe invasa on five commercially grown Eucalyptus species in Coastal, Plateaux, and Southern Highlands agroecological zones of Tanzania. Infestation density between agroecological zones, Eucalyptus species, age classes and tree crown parts, relationship between stand altitudes and the magnitude of infestation, damage index, species age, and abundance of L. invasa on different Eucalyptus species were examined. There were significant differences in infestation between zones and Eucalyptus species. Eucalyptus tereticornis was more affected, followed by E. camaldulensis, and E. saligna was the least while E. grandis and E. citriodora were not affected. No significant differences in damage between different crown parts were observed. Trees with age of 1–3 yr were damaged more than those of age 4–6 yr. Pest infestation increased with an increase of L. invasa abundance but decreased with an increase of altitudes. Control efforts needs to focus on controlling the spread of the pest, using silvicultural methods and planting resistant Eucalyptus species.     

Relationships between nursery practices and field performance for Eucalyptus plantations in Brazil

The 3.5 million ha of Eucalyptus plantations in Brazil support many domestic and industrial activities. In the pulpwood sector, forest productivity has increased from 12 to 40 m³ ha^–1 year^–1 through breeding and silviculturalpractices. Nurseries have fostered thisevolution with changes in container/substratetypes, propagation methods and specificinfrastructure for each plant growth phase.Eucalyptus plants are mainly produced bycuttings, using rigid tube containers filledwith vermiculite-organic compound substrates.Stock quality is based on morphologicalcharacteristics of the plants, andenvironmental conditions are highly significantfor plant performance. Performance is dependenton physiological short-term effects related tosurvival and long-term effects of genotype/rootmorphology related to tree development. Currentsilvicultural trends are reducing establishmentcosts but increasing the risk of using lowquality plants. The development of fieldperformance models and nursery physiologicaltests is recommended for Eucalyptusplantations in Brazil. Improved experimentaldesigns are needed to capture the interactionbetween plant quality and field performance.     

Effects of alley cropped Calliandra calothyrsus and Cliricidia sipium hedges on weed growth,soil properties,and taro yields in Western Samoa

Field experiments were conducted on a tropical Inceptisol at Apia, Western Samoa to evaluate the effects of alley cropping on soil characteristics, weed populations, and taro yield. Taro yields were compared from Calliandra calothyrsus and Gliricidia sipium alleys, spaced at 4 m, 5 m, and 6 m, and a no tree control. Measurements were made for soil moisture and temperature, weed growth, hedge biomass production, and taro growth and yield. Data was analyzed over 4 consecutive years from 1988 to 1991.Hedge biomass yields ranged from 5.1 to 16.1 t/ha/yr dry weight over the 4 years of the trial, with Calliandra and Gliricidia performing equally well. Biomass yields decreased by about 2 mt/ha with increasing alley width from 4 to 6 m alleys. Weed populations were significantly lower in the 4 m alleys compared to the 5 m, 6 m, and control plots. The 6 m alleys supported the significantly highest weed populations. Soil from alley plots held significantly more water in the 0.3 to 1 bar range than soils from the controls. Four years of mulch application measurably improved soil water holding capacity and bulk density. However, no improvement was seen in nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium and organic carbon content in the alley plots compared to the controls. There was no positive yield effect of alley cropping on taro yield. Yields in the 5 m and 6 m alleys were not significantly different from the control, while the 4 m alleys produce significantly lower yields than the control. Thus, alley cropping did not prove a viable alternative to traditional shifting cultivation after 4 years of continuous cropping, in this trial.     

Photosynthesis,growth and yield of soybean and maize in a tree-based agroforestry intercropping system on the Loess Plateau

Agroforestry is the most effective way to restore the disturbed lands on the Loess Plateau and to develop the poor local economy. In order to maximize the potential benefits of tree-based intercropping systems, photosynthesis, growth and yield of soybean and corn were studied by measuring photosynthetic active radiation (PAR), plant water deficit and soil moisture in a 4-year-old plantation of walnut (Juglans regia L.) and plum (Prunus salicina) grown at a spacing of 5 m × 3 m on the Loess Plateau. The effects of tree competition significantly reduced PAR, net assimilation (NA), growth and yield of individual soybean or corn plants growing nearer (1 m near tree row) to tree rows. NA was highly correlated with growth and yield of the both crops. These correlations were higher for corn than soybeans, with corn, rather than soybeans being more adversely impacted by tree shading. Plum, rather than walnut had the greatest competitive effect on PAR and NA. Daily plant water deficits were non-significantly and poorly correlated with NA and growth and yield of the both crops. However, soil moisture (20 cm depth) was significantly correlated with biomass and yield of both crops. Possible remediation strategies are discussed to reduce tree competitive interactions on agricultural crops.     

不同栽培措施对尾巨桉生长的影响及经济效益分析

试验采用列区试验设计,设造林密度和追肥2个因素,每个因素6个水平,4次重复.密度因子作主区,追肥因子作副区,各个因素和各处理按随机区组排列.每个试验小区面积0.04 hm2(20 m×20 m),共计144个小区,连续5 a观测.经过方差分析得出,造林试密度对林分平均高、平均胸径和蓄积量都有极显著的影响.在6种参试密度中,造林密度越大,林分平均高、胸径越小,蓄积量越大;6种配方追肥对林分平均高影响不显著,对胸径和蓄积量生长影响显著;密度与追肥的交互作用不显著.在所有36个列区试验组合中,按经济效益排列前5名的密度和追肥最佳组合分别为:2 222株.hm-2和每公顷施N、P、K分别为200、150、100 kg,1 667株.hm-2和每公顷施N、P、K分别为300、200、200 kg;1 667株.hm-2和每公顷施N、P、K分别为200、150、100 kg;2 222株.hm-2和每公顷施N、P、K分别为100、50、50 kg;1 250株.hm-2和每公顷施N、P、K分别为200、150、100 kg.它们的蓄积量分别为183.94、188.43、169.95、164.33、163.03 m3.hm-2;利润值分别为14 977.44、14 965.09、13 832.83、13 785.80和13 345.18元.hm-2.     

Estimating stand structure using digitalized aerial photography

This study estimates the structure of a forest stand using high-resolution data from digitized aerial photography. The study area was conducted on the fifteen plots with the size of 20 m × 20 m or 15 m × 15 m taken as samples of sugi (Cryptomeria japonica D. Don) stands. The stand factor was investigated based on its relation with the digitalized number (DN) on the black and white aerial ortho photos (scale 1:5,000, taken in 1995). We analyzed various stand structure factors and the distribution of DN from the image data using the Weibull function, which comforms well to every shape of distributions. Using the Weibull distribution, a significant negative correlation was observed between the quantity of stand factors (Mean DBH and the stand volume) and the distribution parameterc of DN. A significant positive correlation was also observed between the distribution parameterc of the stand factor (DBH, height and volume) and the distribution parameterc of DN.