Temporal mapping of deforestation and forest degradation in Nepal: Applications to forest conservation

Deforestation and forest degradation are associated and progressive processes resulting in the conversion of forest area into a mosaic of mature forest fragments, pasture, and degraded habitat. Monitoring of forest landscape spatial structures has been recommended to detect degenerative trends in forest conditions. GIS and remote sensing play an important role in the generation of such data to identify degraded and deforested areas as well as potential areas for conservation. In this study we analyzed forest degradation and deforestation trends in Chitwan district in Nepal, which contains key habitat elements for wildlife in the region. An artificial neural network was used to predict forest canopy density in five classes using Landsat images of the year 2001. Forest canopy density was predicted with 82% overall accuracy. Except riverine forest, forest area of all other forest types was reduced. Terai Shorea robusta forest, which has high commercial value, showed a loss of 23% between 1976 and 1989 and an overall loss of 15% forest covers between the year 1976 and 2001. Deforestation and forest degradation disproportionately reduced the sizes of the different forest types, a finding that has important management implications. The maps presented in this article could be useful to prioritize limited resources for conservation.     

Forested land-cover patterns and trends over changing forest management eras in the Siberian Baikal region

Remote sensing observations over areas of the former Soviet Union suggest that there may be important ongoing influences on forested landscapes resulting from divergent land use and forest management associated with the Soviet versus post-Soviet eras. As the Russian Federation implements its new Forest Code and associated regulations, knowledge of existing forest patterns and trends, plus the development of methods with which to understand the landscape-level influence of different forest management strategies is increasingly important. We developed spatial–temporal models and projections of forest patterns and trends over Soviet and early post-Soviet forest management eras for a study site in the Lake Baikal region in southern Siberia. We used Landsat-derived land-cover data, logistic regressions, and Markov and cellular automata methods (CA–Markov) to characterize patterns and trends 1975–1989 and 1990–2001, and to develop predictive scenarios through 2013. Relationships of forest types (Conifer, Mixed, Deciduous) and Agriculture to other explanatory environmental variables indicated mostly consistent forest–environment relationships, but some different spatial relationships between eras were found for Cut and Regeneration disturbance types. Landscape proportional trends showed greater differences between eras. Cut proportions observed via Landsat in 2001 were approximately 74% lower, and the area of Conifer observed was approximately 14% higher, than modeled proportions predicted for 2001 using 1975–1989 Soviet era transition rates. The proportion of Cut projected for 2013 was about 80% lower when based on early post-Soviet era probabilities. Overall, modeled results indicate that should early post-Soviet trends continue, low rates of logging, some agricultural abandonment, re-growing forests especially near access routes, increases in deciduous cover, along with continued or increased fire events in mixed and conifer forests will define the landscape. Should forest management change, for example to Soviet era rates and patterns of harvest, different outcomes are projected. More broadly, results highlight the real and prospective effects that divergent management strategies can have on forested landscapes, and demonstrate that land-cover data combined with emerging spatial–temporal modeling methods provide an approach to understand and project the complex and ongoing influences associated with changing forest management at landscape scales.     

Cost-Benefit Analysis of a Community Forest in Nepal

Community forestry is an approach for mitigating deforestation and forest degradation by managing the forest resources for benefitting neighboring communities. Monetary benefits and costs are associated in a community forest during conservation and management of a forest. For sustainable forest management, the benefit should be more than cost which is a contesting issue of research. So, this study was conducted in a community forest of the central part of Nepal with the help of 80 household surveys and a focus group discussion. The firsthand information collected at the site is complimented by forest product harvest and cost-related secondary information. It was observed that the total annual harvest of timber was 60 cubic feet, pole was 8 cubic feet, firewood was 1,110 Bhari,¹ fodder was 4,388 Bhari, and leaf litter was 590 Bhari. To manage a forest, people were involved in fencing, thinning, and meetings. Management cost was six times higher than administration cost. The benefit from firewood and fodder was more due to the dependency of people in a forest for enhancing their livelihood. The higher value of benefit cost ratio indicates that the Community Forest User Group benefited from community forest management.     

Evolution of forest cover in Portugal: A review of the 12th–20th centuries

Portugal's forests in the 12th century were dominated by the Fagaceae represented by Quercus and Castanea, and several pine species.From the 12th century onwards, forests underwent changes in their management starting with protection and ultimately leading to intense exploitation. The massive naval construction during the maritime expansion(mainly in the 15th–16th centuries) involved felling of approximately 5 million trees mainly Quercus suber, Pinus pinea and other Quercus species. Cumulative fuel-wood consumption of 959 Mm3 during 1300–1854 was attributed to demographic expansion while the deforestation rate during 1636–1854 accounted for a minimum of 72.6% and a maximum of 96% of total forest cover. The volume of timber used in railway sleepers from 1856 onwards might have reached 0.5 Mm3. The last quarter of the 20th century increased the forest cover of Portugal through the World Bank program of Eucalyptus globulus reforestation.     

Differences in forest management practices in Primorsky Krai: Case study of certified and non-certified by Forest Stewardship Council forest concessions

The Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) aims to promote environmentally responsible forest management globally. However, quantifiable evidence of effects of FSC on forest management practices is lacking. FSC has been present in the Russian forestry arena for over 20 years. In this case study, we compare ecological indicators of forest management in FSC-certified and non-certified companies in Primorsky Krai of the Russian Far East. Those indicators include percent of forest cover loss and gain on forest concessions managed by three certified and three non-certified companies. We also interview a range of stakeholders involved with forest management or in forest policy planning in Russia to provide context for this case study. Results indicate no difference between certified and non-certified companies with regard to forest cover loss from 2008 to 2015 or forest cover gain from 2000 to 2012. Stakeholder interviews reveal that while forest certification is viewed positively and considered an efficient mechanism to improve forest management, the stakeholders doubt its ability to stimulate quantifiable changes in forest management practices in Russia and the Far East specifically. We focus on Primorsky Krai because of its unique geographic location, where its neighbors China and Japan significantly influence Primorsky Krai’s export market.     

A forest of grazing and logging: Deforestation and reforestation history of a boreal landscape in central Sweden

Detailed spatial changes in foreststructure in a central Swedish landscape were examinedusing geographic information system techniques. First,the influence of grazing and burning on forest densityand structure in the 19th century landscape wereanalyzed. Then, the development of the landscapeduring the 20th century, together with the impactof modern forest management methods on foreststructure, were analyzed using historical sources. In1907, over 20% of the 2200 hectare study site wassparsely-wooded (12 m³ ha^–1) with old trees.These areas have been reforested with single-storiedmiddle-aged and old pine stands (66 m³ ha^–1in 1989) during the 20th century. Firesuppression and changes in land use from subsistence-to-industrialforestry, facilitated Norway spruceregeneration as undergrowth in open Scots pine standsafter logging. This natural regeneration has, to alarge extent, been cut down and replaced by pineafforestation. During the second half of the 20thcentury, the standing timber volume has steadilyincreased, while the mean age of the forest hasdecreased. Today's young dense forests will result inhigher timber values in the coming decades, but theforest has lost a range of ecological niches.     

How does perception at multiple levels influence collective action in the commons? The case of Mikania micrantha in Chitwan,Nepal

Collective action has played a vital role in managing common pool resources in numerous global contexts. This article explores the factors affecting collective action related to the removal of the mile-a-minute weed (Mikania micrantha, referred to as Mikania), an invasive plant, in community forests in the buffer zone region around Chitwan National Park in Chitwan, Nepal. Few studies have combined larger sample size quantitative data with greater generalizability and nuanced, qualitative data to explore what factors influence collective action or focused on how perception of the issue at multiple levels affects outcomes. This research employs household and community forest management survey data from 21 community forests in and near the buffer zone of Chitwan National Park in Nepal. Our multilevel econometric analyses, including an analysis examining geographic space using eigenvectors, investigate what influences local people's participation in Mikania removal and we contextualize the findings with case-study interview data. Our results indicate that reliance on community forest resources, perception of the issue, and neighborhood sizes influence are influential factors in their participation in Mikania removal. The implications of these findings are discussed in the context of increasing the effectiveness of Mikania removal efforts and influencing collective action in relation to other global human-environment issues.     

Characterizing changes in land cover and forest fragmentation from multitemporal Landsat observations (1993-2018)in the Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve,Nepal

Natural forces and anthropogenic activities greatly alter land cover,deteriorate or alleviate forest frag-mentation and affect biodiversity.Thus land cover and forest fragmentation dynamics have become a focus of concern for natural resource management agencies and biodiversity con-servation communities.However,there are few land cover datasets and forest fragmentation information available for the Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve (DHR) of Nepal to develop targeted biodiversity conservation plans.In this study,these gaps were filled by characterizing land cover and forest frag-mentation trends in the DHR.Using five Landsat images between 1993 and 2018,a support vector machine algorithm was applied to classify six land cover classes:forest,grass-lands,barren lands,agricultural and built-up areas,water bodies,and snow and glaciers.Subsequently,two landscape process models and four landscape metrics were used to depict the forest fragmentation situations.Results showed that forest cover increased from 39.4％ in 1993 to 39.8％ in 2018.Conversely,grasslands decreased from 38.2％ in 1993 to 36.9％ in 2018.The forest shrinkage was responsible for forest loss during the period,suggesting that the loss of for-est cover reduced the connectivity between forest and non-forested areas.Expansion was the dominant component of the forest restoration process,implying that it avoided the occurrence of isolated forests.The maximum value of edge density and perimeter area fractal dimension metrics and the minimum value of aggregation index were observed in 2011,revealing that forests in this year were most fragmented.These specific observations from the current analysis can help local authorities and local communities,who are highly dependent on forest resources,to better develop local forest management and biodiversity conservation plans.     

Assessing the sustainability in community based forestry: A case from Nepal

Community based forestry is seen as a promising instrument for sustainable forest management (SFM) through the purposeful involvement of local communities. Globally, forest area managed by local communities is on the rise. However, transferring management responsibilities to forest users alone cannot guarantee the sustainability of forest management. A monitoring tool, that allows the local communities to track the progress of forest management towards the goal of sustainability, is essential. A case study, including six forest user groups (FUGs), two from each three community based forestry models—community forestry (CF), buffer zone community forestry (BZCF), and collaborative forest management (CFM) representing three different physiographic regions, was conducted in Nepal. The study explores which community based forest management model (CF, BZCF or CFM) is doing well in terms of sustainable forest management. The study assesses the overall performance of the three models towards SFM using locally developed criteria (four), indicators (26) and verifiers (60). This paper attempts to quantify the sustainability of the models using sustainability index for individual criteria (SIIC), and overall sustainability index (OSI). In addition, rating to the criteria and scoring of the verifiers by the FUGs were done. Among the four criteria, the FUGs ascribed the highest weightage to institutional framework and governance criterion; followed by economic and social benefits, forest management practices, and extent of forest resources. Similarly, the SIIC was found to be the highest for the institutional framework and governance criterion. The average values of OSI for CFM, CF, and BZCF were 0.48, 0.51 and 0.60 respectively; suggesting that buffer zone community forestry is the more sustainable model among the three. The study also suggested that the SIIC and OSI help local communities to quantify the overall progress of their forestry practices towards sustainability. The indices provided a clear picture of forest management practices to indicate the direction where they are heading in terms of sustainability; and informed the users on issues to pay attention to enhance sustainability of their forests.     

Contribution of participatory forest management towards conservation and rehabilitation of dry Afromontane forests and its implications for carbon management in the tropical Southeastern Highlands of Ethiopia

Participatory forest management (PFM) has been applied as an approach to create a framework for collaborative forest management between local communities and government forestry agencies. This study was designed to assess the contribution of PFM approach in improving forest status in the Southeastern Highlands of Ethiopia. Landsat satellite imageries of four years were used to evaluate the trends and rate of deforestation before and after PFM interventions. Socio-economic data were collected from sample household surveys, key participants, focus group discussions, and field observations. The results showed that there was high rate of deforestation before PFM intervention as forestland has decreased by 19% (2531 ha) between 1990 and 2000. However, after the PFM intervention (2000–2016), the forest cover has increased by 247 ha (2.2%). During this period, net 1016 ha of shrub-lands were converted into forestland owing to significant forest regeneration. In addition, most sampled households (94% and 96% from lower and upper altitudes, respectively) perceived that PFM had significantly contributed to improve forest regeneration in their locality. This study revealed that PFM can serve as a stepping stone for carbon financing mechanisms to reduce greenhouses emission and enhance carbon sinks via forest resources.     

Contrasting the financial efficiency of agroforestry practices in buffer zone management of Madhupur National Park, Bangladesh

This research contrasts the financial profitability of different agroforestry practices in community-based buffer zone management of Madhupur National Park (MNP), Bangladesh. This park is the second largest in Bangladesh and subjected to enormous anthropogenic pressure and land rights-related conflicts. This paper reports the different agroforestry practices of villagers in different modules of the buffer zone of MNP, identified by a participatory research approach. It then assesses the profitability of each module on the basis of cost–benefit analysis, net present value, internal rate of return, and annualized income. Results indicate three agroforestry systems were being practised in the buffer zone by the participants: agro-silviculture, agro-silvo-horticulture, and combined woodlot and agroforestry. Among these modules, agro-silvo-horticulture was the most profitable, followed by agro-silviculture then combined woodlot and agroforestry. We recognize that not all of the participants can practise intensive agroforestry; our results suggest that the community-based buffer zone management strategy for MNP would benefit from prioritizing agroforestry practices where possible. This will lead to more successful buffer zone management for the conservation of natural forests while supporting the development of local resource-dependent communities.     

Participatory forest conservation in Southwest lowland rainforests of Sri Lanka

Natural forest in Sri Lanka has been decreased significantly in the last few decades. The remaining natural forests especially in floristic region seven have undergone less conservation efforts in the past. Considering the capacity of the government and dependence on forest resources by local villagers, the only way for conservation of these forests in the Southwest lowland is forest management through local participation. Management plans for community-based resource management have been completed. However promotion of such management requires integrated measures, which are beyond jurisdiction of Forest Department. A holistic approach with political commitment concerning buffer zone villages and economic incentives with income generation opportunities supported by external inputs are expected to be implemented as a matter of urgency.     

川中丘陵区森林经营利用与保护存在的问题及其对策研究——以三台县为例

四川丘陵区人多地少、人地矛盾突出、地块破碎,森林覆盖率低,人工低质低产林较多,这些特征影响了林权改革后森林的可持续经营。因此,探讨四川丘陵区林权改革后森林经营与保护中存在的问题与对策有重要的现实意义。本文以四川丘陵区典型代表县三台县为例,分析了丘陵区林权改革后森林经营利用和保护存在的问题,并提出了相应的经营利用和保护对策。     

The allocation of household-based forest protection contracts in Tam Dao National Park,Vietnam: Elite capture as a bureaucratic impulse against community capture

Abstract

This article examines the characteristics of households that were allocated paid forest protection contracts in Tam Dao National Park situated in northern Vietnam. Its research indicates that the national park management board systematically favored households with weaker community ties in their contract allocations. Furthermore, the article argues that the national park management board took a defensive stance against buffer zone communes resisting park policy and that they also attempted to manage forest conservation by centralizing the allocation and management of forest protection contracts. These circumstances led to an inequitable distribution of rights and continued land use inside the park, as contract holders were powerless to enforce park regulations.     

Comparing buffer zone alternatives in forest planning using a decision support system

Increased awareness of the connection between forest management activities and negative effects on water quality means that forestry needs to consider its potential impact on the aquatic environment when planning operations. Protective buffer zones are effective, but their design can vary. To be able to incorporate up-to-date scientific theory into practical applications easy-to-use planning tools are needed. In this study, we evaluate different buffer zone alternatives by using the freely available decision support system Heureka. The consequences on both economic and ecological values over a time period of 100 years were evaluated for two buffer zone approaches and three management alternatives within the buffer zones. Results indicated that there is a trade-off between economic and ecological values when managing the buffer zones. To be able to perform the analyses within Heureka, a new tool was developed. This software development provides access to a forest planning tool that can help improve nature conservation.     

芬兰林业管理对我国集体林区森林资源管理的启示

通过对芬兰林业政府管理机构、民间管理机构和林业管理理念的分析,总结了芬兰林业管理在满足林主需求、建立林主组织和科研服务生产方面的经验做法,提出了我国在集体林区加强森林资源管理的3点建议:1)强化森林管理和科技服务部门之间的密切合作;2)鼓励民间建立林农合作组织;3)加强林业实用性技术研究和成果推广。     

森林资源管理信息系统的研究和实现

森林资源管理信息系统是现代化森林资源经营管理的重要工具。文章首先分析森林资源管理信息系统的特点及趋势,然后对本系统的主要关键技术进行简述。着重探讨了建立基于C/S与B/S混合结构的森林资源管理系统的方法和技术,系统初步实现了森林资源管理的信息化。     

Effects of Different Management Practices on Stand Composition and Species Diversity in Subtropical Forests in Nepal: Implications of Community Participation in Biodiversity Conservation

In this article, we compared the structure, composition, and diversity of trees, shrubs and saplings, seedlings and herbaceous species of community- and government-managed forests in the lowlands of eastern Nepal. Results suggest that among the trees, the community forest was dominated by a single species, Shorea robusta. However, Shorea robusta and Terminalia myriocarpa were codominant in the government forest. Tree density and basal area were higher in the government forest, but shrub/sapling density and basal area were higher in the community forest, suggesting a positive effect of community management on tree regeneration. Overstory species assemblages showed an obvious compositional difference between the forests, but understory species assemblages were less obvious. Plot-level tree and shrub/sapling species richness was higher in the government forest than the community forest. However, seedling-herbaceous species richness was higher in the community forest. The dominance of Shorea robusta trees in the community forest suggests that people involved in managing forests may be more interested in a limited number of economically valuable species while removing less important trees. Such preferential management practices may increase resource heterogeneity within a forest and maintain species diversity in the understory. Thus, community participation in forest management should be encouraged, with guided management techniques and exercises, to achieve maximum forest recovery, provide sustainable ecosystem services, and maintain forest diversity.     

Analysis of the role of forest,biomass policy legislation and other factors that may affect the future of Kenya’s forests: Use of Japanese forestry as a model

Forests are one of the most important ecosystems on earth that require careful management, conservation, and sustainable exploitation. As countries have their own guideline systems, each may learn and borrow from one another’s experience. One of such countries is Japan, which has elaborate forest policies, and rich in forest cover (67%) with its forest history dating many years back. On the other hand, Kenya, with a forest cover of just 7% and its policies demonstrating notable weaknesses, has a lot to learn from Japan. Therefore, we have attempted to do a comparative analysis of forest policies, technologies, and management practices between Kenya and Japan. Results indicate that Kenya’s forest policies do not place adequate emphasis on silvicultural practices and the establishment of forest plantations, and rarely focus on sustainable biomass utilization—factors that contributed significantly to forest growth and development in Japan. Additionally, policy legislation, revision, and implementation have not been given the deserved priority in Kenya. We conclude that Kenyan forest policy would benefit from both revision and thorough implementation. We also discuss the role of indirect factors such as economic growth and availability of nonwood-based energy sources in the future of Kenya’s forests.     

Disturbance ecology benchmarks for Schima–Castanopsis forests in the central Himalayas

Roughly 2.8 billion people burn wood for basic energy needs, and traditional wood-fuel represents ~55% of global wood harvest. With increasing anthropogenic disturbance of natural forests, the “stability/fragility” paradigm of forest ecology is gradually being replaced by a “disturbance/recovery” paradigm. In order to understand effects of human-induced disturbances on natural forest ecosystems, and to plan for recovery of disturbed forests, appropriate metrics become necessary. Such metrics will aid in assessment and management of forests for carbon sequestration, biodiversity conservation, ecosystem health, and sustainability of natural resources. Such metrics are especially needed in “wood-fuel hotspots” of the world where over 275 million people live and harvest wood-fuel unsustainably. In this article, I provide metrics of human-induced disturbance in Nepal’s Schima–Castanopsis dominated forests and show relationships of disturbance intensity with forest structure and composition, site productivity potential, natural regeneration, and tree species diversity. Benchmark data were collected from survey of two protected reference forests and compared against three other forests representing a disturbance gradient. The Schima–Castanopsis association is a common dominant forest type in the warm temperate zone of the central Himalayas, and the findings from this study should have wider application.