Effects of pymetrozine, an antifeedant of Hemiptera, on Asian citrus psyllid, Diaphorina citri, feeding behavior, survival and transmission of Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus

BACKGROUND: Vector‐borne plant disease management can be enhanced by deployment of antifeedants in addition to the use of broad‐spectrum neurotoxic insecticides. The effects of pymetrozine on Asian citrus psyllid (ACP), Diaphorina citri Kuwayama, feeding behaviour, survival and transmission of Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus (Las), the presumed causal pathogen of huanglongbing, were investigated. RESULTS: Pymetrozine applied at 52 and 104 µg mL^?1 to citrus plants [Swingle citrumelo (X Citroncirus webberi Ingram and Moore)] modified the feeding behavior of ACP and increased the amount of time spent performing non‐penetration behaviors while decreasing the time spent performing ingestion behaviors compared with the controls 1 day after treatment. However, the antifeedant effect of pymetrozine subsided 5 days after application. Pymetrozine reduced the survival of both adults and nymphs on treated plants compared with the control. However, it had a greater impact on survival of nymphs than on survival of adults. Pymetrozine applied at 52 and 104 µg mL^?1 on Las‐infected ‘Valencia’ sweet orange plants [Citrus sinensis L. (Osbeck)] reduced acquisition (12 and 21% respectively) and transmission (11 and 18% respectively) of Las by feeding ACP adults compared with the controls; however, these reductions were not statistically significant. CONCLUSIONS: Pymetrozine exhibited moderate antifeedant effects by modifying the feeding behavior of ACP adults with short residual activity. The impact of pymetrozine on survival of nymphs was greater than on adults at the higher concentrations tested. Pymetrozine also reduced the acquisition and transmission of Las by feeding ACP adults up to 21 and 18%, respectively, compared with untreated controls. Copyright © 2010 Society of Chemical Industry     

Effect of Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus infection on susceptibility of Asian citrus psyllid, Diaphorina citri, to selected insecticides

BACKGROUND: In the present investigation, the effect of Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus (Las), a bacterium considered to be responsible for causing huanglongbing (HLB) disease in citrus, on the physiology of its vector, the Asian citrus psyllid (ACP) Diaphorina citri Kuwayama, was determined. Specifically, the effects of Las infection on the susceptibility of ACP to selected insecticides were determined. Furthermore, total protein content and general esterase activity were quantified in Las‐infected and uninfected ACP to gain insight into the possible mechanism(s) responsible for altered susceptibility to insecticides owing to Las infection. RESULTS: LC₅₀ values were significantly lower in Las‐infected than in uninfected ACP adults for chlorpyrifos and spinetoram. Furthermore, there was a general trend towards lower LC₅₀ values for three other insecticides for Las‐infected ACP; however, the differences were not statistically significant. Total protein content (µg mL^?1) was significantly lower in Las‐infected (23.5 ± 1.3 in head + thorax; 27.7 ± 1.9 in abdomen) than in uninfected (29.7 ± 2.1 in head + thorax; 35.0 ± 2.3 in abdomen) ACP. Likewise, general esterase enzyme activity (nmol min^?1 mg^?1 protein) was significantly lower in Las‐infected (111.6 ± 4.5 in head + thorax; 109.5 ± 3.7 in abdomen) than in uninfected (135.9 ± 7.5 in head + thorax; 206.1 ± 23.7 in abdomen) ACP. CONCLUSION: Susceptibility of ACP to selected insecticides from five major chemistries was greater in Las‐infected than in uninfected ACP. The lower total protein content and reduced general esterase activity in Las‐infected than in uninfected ACP may partly explain the observed higher insecticide susceptibility of Las‐infected ACP. Copyright © 2010 Society of Chemical Industry     

广东三个柑橘品种不同生育期的黄龙病菌含量动态变化研究

采用实时荧光定量PCR检测了广东省3个柑橘品种在不同生育期的黄龙病菌含量,探索其动态变化规律,为病害防控提供依据。结果表明,第一年,3个品种春梢期的黄龙病菌平均含量分别为3.52×10~5、4.76×10~5、1.03×10~5拷贝/g,显著低于相应夏梢期(5.50×10~5、9.48×10~5、2.50×10~5拷贝/g)和秋梢期(5.32×10~5、9.84×10~5、2.59×10~5拷贝/g);夏梢期与秋梢期含量又显著低于相应冬梢期(21.60×10~5、17.65×10~5、6.86×10~5拷贝/g)及果实成熟期(14.57×10~5、16.45×10~5、7.96×10~5拷贝/g);砂糖橘全年黄龙病菌含量与贡柑无显著差异,但均显著高于柠檬;第二年的数据与第一年类似,但砂糖橘和贡柑在多个生育期的含菌量比上年均显著升高,而柠檬所有生育期菌量均无显著变化。结果显示:柑橘病树内的黄龙病菌含量在春梢期最低,夏梢、秋梢期次之,冬梢期及果实成熟期最高;‘柠檬’相对耐病,体现为含菌量相对较低、增速较慢。     

Quantification and ecological study of ‘Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus’ in citrus hosts,rootstocks and the Asian citrus psyllid

The use of proper management strategies for citrus huanglongbing (HLB), caused by ‘Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus’ (Las) and transmitted by Asian citrus psyllid (ACP) (Diaphorina citri), is a priority issue. HLB control is based on healthy seedlings, tolerant rootstock cultivars and reduction of ACP populations. Here, dynamic populations of Las in different citrus hosts and each instar of ACP were studied, together with the seasonal growth and distribution of Las in different tissues, using conventional and TaqMan real‐time PCR. Different levels of susceptibility/tolerance to HLB were seen, resulting in different degrees of symptom severity and growth effects on hosts or rootstocks. Troyer citrange, Swingle citrumelo and wood apple were highly tolerant among 11 rootstock cultivars. Regarding distribution and seasonal analysis of Las, mature and old leaves contained high concentrations in cool temperatures in autumn and spring. Las was detected earlier through psyllid transmission than through graft inoculation, and the amounts of Las (AOL) varied in different hosts. Thus, different AOL (10⁴–10⁷ copy numbers μL^?1) and Las‐carrying percentages (LCP; 40–53.3%) were observed in each citrus cultivar and on psyllids, respectively. Furthermore, both AOL and LCP were lower in nymphs than in adult psyllids, whereas the LCP of psyllids were not affected by increasing the acquisition‐access time. The present study has significant implications for disease ecology. The combination of early detection, use of suitable rootstocks and constraint of psyllid populations could achieve better management of HLB disease.     

柑橘黄龙病常规PCR检测技术研究与初步应用

柑橘黄龙病是世界范围具有毁灭性危害的柑橘细菌性病害,在我国大部分柑橘产区发生,严重制约了我国柑橘产业的发展。本文根据黄龙病病原物亚洲韧皮杆菌核糖体16SrRNA基因设计了1对PCR引物HLBF468/HLBR877,并以此为基础建立了常规PCR反应体系,确定了检测体系的特异性和灵敏度。结果表明该体系的检测灵敏度比先前报道的常规PCR方法有了明显提高。利用建立的PCR体系完成了对广东和广西两省区果园柑橘黄龙病的抽样检测。本研究建立的常规PCR方法可以作为一种简便、准确、灵敏的检测技术应用于柑橘黄龙病的早期诊断。     

马铃薯斑纹片病菌含扩增内标的双重实时荧光PCR检测

马铃薯斑纹片病菌(Candidatus Liberibacter solanacearum)是一种主要为害伞形花科和茄科植物的重要有害生物,目前无法人工培养且可随种子远距离传播.准确灵敏的PCR检测方法对病害预警和防止扩散具有重要意义.本文通过复合引物法构建扩增内标(internal amplification con...     

Frequency and occurrence of the carrot pathogen ‘Candidatus Liberibacter solanacearum’ haplotype C in Finland

Occurrence of ‘Candidatus Liberibacter solanacearum’ (CLso) was studied in field‐grown carrots (Daucus carota) in different regions of Finland. In addition, the frequency of CLso in carrots and in field populations of its vector, the carrot psyllid (Trioza apicalis), was studied in southwestern Finland. CLso was detected in six of the seven regions where the main carrot cultivation areas are located. The highest disease incidence was found in southwestern Finland, in the area where this carrot pathogen was originally found. In the Tavastia Proper and Southwest Finland regions, CLso was detected in 26 out of 30 randomly chosen fields inspected in 2013 and 2014, and in a third of those fields more than 10% of plants showed symptoms. Of those carrots showing both psyllid feeding‐associated leaf curling and CLso infection‐associated leaf discolouration symptoms, 77% were CLso positive in the PCR test. Some symptomless carrots from the affected fields also tested positive. Of the carrot psyllid individuals collected from the same area, 60% were CLso positive. Elsewhere, disease incidence was variable in South Ostrobothnia in western Finland and low but established in South Savonia in eastern Finland. CLso was not detected in the North Ostrobothnia region. Sequencing of the amplified DNA fragments confirmed that the bacteria in the carrot samples from different areas within Finland all represented CLso haplotype C. The frequent occurrence and wide distribution of this pathogen, transmitted by a psyllid that does not migrate over long distances, suggest that it is persistent in Finland.     

柑橘黄龙病菌过氧化物还原酶基因CLasPrx的克隆及功能分析

为解析柑橘黄龙病菌亚洲种Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus（CLas）逃逸活性氧伤害的机理,通过克隆其过氧化物还原酶（peroxiredoxin,Prx）编码基因的全长序列,对CLasPrx蛋白序列进行生物信息学分析、多重比对及系统发育分析,采用实时荧光定量PCR方法检测CLasPrx基因在柑橘不同组织中的表达模式,并在本氏烟Nicotiana benthamiana叶肉细胞瞬时表达CLasPrx分析其编码蛋白的亚细胞定位,利用碘化钾法测定 CLasPrx 蛋白清除 H₂O₂的活性。结果显示,克隆得到的CLasPrx基因序列全长为534 bp,编码177个氨基酸;CLasPrx蛋白包含1个Redoxin保守结构域;多重比对分析发现CLasPrx蛋白活性位点含有保守基序PGAFTPTC;系统发育分析表明CLasPrx蛋白与近缘物种的同源蛋白聚为一类;CLasPrx基因在感染黄龙病柑橘树秋梢中的表达水平显著高于在春梢中的表达水平;CLasPrx定位于本氏烟叶肉细胞的细胞质基质中;过表达CLasPrx蛋白能够显著降低本氏烟叶肉细胞内H₂O₂的含量。表明CLasPrx可能参与柑橘黄龙病菌清除H₂O₂的过程。     

田间柑橘植株不同部位黄龙病菌的PCR检测及发病原因分析

［目的］了解黄龙病菌在柑橘植株不同部位的分布,为深入研究病菌在植株体内的扩散情况奠定基础;明确病害的发生原因为有效防控该病害提供借鉴。［方法］ 调查浙江省台州市柑橘黄龙病（huanglongbing, HLB）的发生情况,通过常规和巢式PCR,检测了发病情形不同的两个果园内柑橘病株不同部位及不同植株中的黄龙病菌,并对其发病原因进行分析。［结果］ 发现一果园内病株的无症状叶片、有症状叶片和枝条中均含有黄龙病菌,而其周围植株不含病菌;另一果园内病株的有症状叶片、枝条、主干和砧木中均含有黄龙病菌,而其周围植株也含菌。［结论］分析认为这两种果园内柑橘植株发病原因不同,一种可能为通过携带黄龙病菌的柑橘木虱所感染,另一种可能为嫁接过程中通过带菌的接穗感染。     

Quantification of DNA of citrus huanglongbing pathogen in diseased leaves using competitive PCR

A quantification system for huanglongbing pathogen using a competitive polymerase chain reaction method and image-analyzing software were developed to obtain precise results. Significant differences in the quantity of pathogen were thus determined in leaves of two citrus cultivars commonly cultivated in southern Vietnam. Less pathogen-related DNA was detected from the tissue of citrus cultivars that are believed to be more tolerant than susceptible cultivars. The quantification system will be used in studies on pathogen proliferation and movement inside citrus tissue.     

柑橘黄龙病防控药剂筛选试验初报

为筛选有效防治罹病柑橘植株体内黄龙病菌的药剂,选取6种药剂进行韧皮部输液,利用实时定量PCR对病株体内带菌量进行动态监测以确定相对防效。结果表明,连续施药8个月后,硫酸铜、布罗波尔处理组和对照组带菌量下降了20%~30%,2,2 二溴 3 次氮基丙酰胺、异噻唑啉酮以及氨苄青霉素带菌量减少了80%以上;ZnSO 4处理带菌量下降了65.60%。各观察期内相对防效都超过50%的药剂有2,2－二溴－3－次氮基丙酰胺（≥50%）和氨苄青霉素（≥70%）。相对防效分析表明,施药后8个月1 g/L 2,2 二溴 3 次氮基丙酰胺、异噻唑啉酮、氨苄青霉素相对防效分别达到了89.75%、83.72%和87.27%,初步判断这3种药剂对黄龙病病树有防控效果。     

Effect of pyriproxyfen,a juvenile hormone mimic,on egg hatch,nymph development,adult emergence and reproduction of the Asian citrus psyllid,Diaphorina citri Kuwayama

BACKGROUND: The Asian citrus psyllid (ACP), Diaphorina citri Kuwayama, is a vector of bacteria presumably responsible for huanglongbing (HLB) disease in citrus. In this laboratory study, an investigation was made of the activity of pyriproxyfen, a juvenile hormone mimic, on ACP eggs, nymphs and adults to evaluate its potential as a biorational insecticide for inclusion in an integrated pest management (IPM) program for ACP. RESULTS: Irrespective of egg age, timing or method of treatment, a significantly lower percentage of eggs (5–29%) hatched after exposure to 64 and 128 µg mL^?1 of pyriproxyfen. Only 0–36% of early instars (first, second and third) and 25–74% of late instars (fourth and fifth) survived to adults following exposure to 16, 32 and 64 µg mL^?1 of pyriproxyfen. However, 15–20% of adults that emerged following treatment as late instars exhibited morphological abnormalities. Furthermore, pyriproxyfen adversely affected reproduction (fecundity and fertility) of adults that emerged from treated fifth instars or that were treated topically with 0.04 µg as adults. CONCLUSIONS: Application of pyriproxyfen at 64 µg mL^?1 resulted in greater inhibition of egg hatch and suppression of adult emergence compared with lower rates. Pyriproxyfen also markedly reduced female fecundity and egg viability for adults that were exposed either as fifth instars or as newly emerged adults. The ovicidal, larvicidal and reproductive effects against ACP suggest that pyriproxyfen is suitable for integration into an IPM program for ACP. Copyright © 2009 Society of Chemical Industry     

Economic justification for quarantine status – the case study of ‘Candidatus Liberibacter solanacearum’ in the European Union

International agreements on plant health and trade require that regulating a pest should be justified by economic impact assessment. Economic impact assessments are usually qualitative, weakening the objective and transparency of the regulation decision. This study assessed the potential economic impacts of the invasion of the plant pathogenic bacterium ‘Candidatus Liberibacter solanacearum’ into the European Union in order to economically justify a decision on its quarantine status. Direct economic impacts resulting from yield loss in potato and tomato were computed using partial budgeting at a regional scale, while total economic impacts on the potato and tomato markets were computed using partial equilibrium modelling at the EU scale. Annual direct impacts at the most likely infestation level were estimated at €222 m for the whole EU. Uncertainty analysis showed a distribution of foreseeable annual impacts with a 5th percentile of €192 m, and a 95th percentile of €512 m. Increased market prices of potato and tomato resulting from reduced supply were found to increase profits for non‐infested producers and to compensate in part for the production losses of infested producers, with consumers paying for this mitigation of impacts on producers. The expected negative impact on societal welfare at the most likely infestation level is less than the estimated direct impacts, viz. €114 m/year. The potential economic impacts of ‘Ca. L. solanacearum’ in the European Union are demonstrably of major importance. Therefore, a decision to categorize this organism as a quarantine pest is supported.     

Association of ‘Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus’ root infection,but not phloem plugging with root loss on huanglongbing‐affected trees prior to appearance of foliar symptoms

Huanglongbing (HLB) is a systemic disease of citrus caused by phloem‐limited bacteria ‘Candidatus Liberibacter’ spp. with ‘Ca. Liberibacter asiaticus’ (Las) the most widespread. Phloem‐limited bacteria such as liberibacters and phytoplasmas are emerging as major pathogens of woody and herbaceous plants. Little is known about their systemic movement within a plant and the disease process in these tissues. Las movement after initial infection was monitored in leaves and roots of greenhouse trees. Root density, storage starch content, and vascular system anatomy in relation to Las presence in field and greenhouse trees, both with and without symptoms, showed the importance of root infection in disease development. Las preferentially colonized roots before leaves, where it multiplied and quickly invaded leaves when new foliar flush became a sink tissue for phloem flow. This led to the discovery that roots were damaged by root infection prior to development of visible foliar symptoms and was not associated with carbohydrate starvation caused by phloem‐plugging as previously hypothesized. The role of root infection in systemic insect‐vectored bacterial pathogens has been underestimated. These findings demonstrate the significance of early root infection to tree health and suggest a model for phloem‐limited bacterial movement from the initial insect feeding site to the roots where it replicates, damages the host root system, and then spreads to the rest of the canopy during subsequent leaf flushes. This model provides a framework for testing movement of phloem‐limited bacteria to gain greater understanding of how these pathogens cause disease and spread.     

纽荷尔脐橙树体中黄龙病菌的分布规律及其对叶片组织结构和木质素合成的影响

为明确纽荷尔脐橙树体不同部位叶片在不同季节的黄龙病菌Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus感染情况,利用实时荧光定量PCR技术检测采集自不同季节及树体不同部位叶片样品中的黄龙病菌,并对秋季采集的相同叶龄且黄龙病菌含量不同的叶片进行叶脉显微结构观察、木质素含量测定以及木质素合成相关基因表达模式分析。结果显示,夏季采集的 122 份叶片样品的阳性率为16.02%,秋季采集的486份叶片样品的阳性率为33.02%,后者的阳性率显著高于前者;其中178份采集自秋季枝条顶端的叶片样品阳性率最高,为36.88%,308份采集自秋季枝条底端的叶片样品阳性率为26.84%,二者均显著高于采集自夏季枝条的60份顶端叶片的阳性率（22.98%）和62份底端叶片的阳性率（8.96%）。对秋季不同含菌量叶片样品进行比较后发现,含菌量较高的叶片其韧皮部厚度较对照显著增加;叶片内木质素含量随着黄龙病菌含量的增加而增加,同时3个木质素合成相关基因Cs4g17860、orange1.1t02755和orange1.1t04489的表达量也随着黄龙病菌含量的增加而上调表达。表明感染黄龙病的纽荷尔脐橙在秋季时其枝条顶端的叶片的阳性率相较于底端叶片以及夏季叶片更高,且黄龙病菌入侵后叶片韧皮部厚度、木质素含量及部分木质素合成相关基因表达量均随着叶片中菌含量的升高而增加。     

Quantification of viable <Emphasis Type="Italic">Candidatus</Emphasis> Liberibacter asiaticus in hosts using quantitative PCR with the aid of ethidium monoazide (EMA)

Citrus Huanglongbing (HLB) is a devastating disease of citrus known to be associated with a fastidious, phloem-limited Gram-negative, yet to be cultured bacterium in the genus Candidatus Liberibacter. In the present study we have developed a method to quantify viable Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus (Las) with the aid of ethidium monoazide (EMA) which can differentiate live from dead cells. First, calibration curves were developed with the aid of quantitative real-time PCR (QPCR) by using a plasmid template consisting of a 703 bp DNA fragment of rplKAJL-rpoBC (β-operon) region. Standard equations were then developed to quantify Las genome equivalents in citrus, periwinkle, and Asian citrus psyllid, Diaphorina citri. To overcome the limitation of quantitative PCR in discriminating between live and dead bacterial cells, EMA was used to inhibit the amplification of DNA from the dead cells of Las in plant samples. By using the standard equations and EMA-QPCR methods developed in this study, we found that the proportion of viable cells in citrus and periwinkle ranged from 17–31% and 16–28%, respectively. It was determined that a minimum bacterial concentration is required for HLB symptom development by quantifying the population of Las in symptomatic and asymptomatic leaves. The EMA-QPCR methodology developed in the present study should provide an accurate assessment of viable HLB pathogen, providing a tool to investigate disease epidemiology and thus act as a crucial component for disease assessment and management. The authors P. Trivedi and U. S. Sagaram contributed equally to this work.