How the brain translates money into force: a neuroimaging study of subliminal motivation

Unconscious motivation in humans is often inferred but rarely demonstrated empirically. We imaged motivational processes, implemented in a paradigm that varied the amount and reportability of monetary rewards for which subjects exerted physical effort. We show that, even when subjects cannot report how much money is at stake, they nevertheless deploy more force for higher amounts. Such a motivational effect is underpinned by engagement of a specific basal forebrain region. Our findings thus reveal this region as a key node in brain circuitry that enables expected rewards to energize behavior, without the need for the subjects;awareness.     

Evolution of a vertebrate social decision-making network

Animals evaluate and respond to their social environment with adaptive decisions. Revealing the neural mechanisms of such decisions is a major goal in biology. We analyzed expression profiles for 10 neurochemical genes across 12 brain regions important for decision-making in 88 species representing five vertebrate lineages. We found that behaviorally relevant brain regions are remarkably conserved over 450 million years of evolution. We also find evidence that different brain regions have experienced different selection pressures, because spatial distribution of neuroendocrine ligands are more flexible than their receptors across vertebrates. Our analysis suggests that the diversity of social behavior in vertebrates can be explained, in part, by variations on a theme of conserved neural and gene expression networks.     

Social components of fitness in primate groups

There is much interest in the evolutionary forces that favored the evolution of large brains in the primate order. The social brain hypothesis posits that selection has favored larger brains and more complex cognitive capacities as a means to cope with the challenges of social life. The hypothesis is supported by evidence that shows that group size is linked to various measures of brain size. But it has not been clear how cognitive complexity confers fitness advantages on individuals. Research in the field and laboratory shows that sophisticated social cognition underlies social behavior in primate groups. Moreover, a growing body of evidence suggests that the quality of social relationships has measurable fitness consequences for individuals.     

Social bonds of female baboons enhance infant survival

Among nonhuman primates, females often form strong bonds with kin and other group members. These relationships are thought to have adaptive value for females, but direct effects of sociality on fitness have never been demonstrated. We present 16 years of behavioral data from a well-studied population of wild baboons, which demonstrate that sociality of adult females is positively associated with infant survival, an important component of variation in female lifetime fitness. The effects of sociality on infant survival are independent of the effects of dominance rank, group membership, and environmental conditions. Our results are consistent with the evidence that social support has beneficial effects on human health and well-being across the life span. For humans and other primates, sociality has adaptive value.     

比较心理对农民工幸福感的影响——基于收入和阶层定位的双重视角

构建“比较内容－比较理论－比较维度－心理机制”的分析框架，基于2015年中国综合社会调查和省级匹配统计年鉴数据，运用有序Logit回归模型，实证研究收入和阶层定位比较对农民工幸福感的影响。结果发现，农民工幸福感受到收入和阶层定位在横向和期望值两个比较维度的影响，即相对剥夺与隧道效应心理机制是新时代农民工幸福感的重要来源；而收入和阶层定位纵向比较却与农民工幸福感无显著关联。新时代推进以人为本的新型城镇化需要关注农民工不同社会比较心理机制的演变逻辑，促进农民工在精神层面的市民化。     

The neural basis of altruistic punishment

Many people voluntarily incur costs to punish violations of social norms. Evolutionary models and empirical evidence indicate that such altruistic punishment has been a decisive force in the evolution of human cooperation. We used H2 15O positron emission tomography to examine the neural basis for altruistic punishment of defectors in an economic exchange. Subjects could punish defection either symbolically or effectively. Symbolic punishment did not reduce the defector's economic payoff, whereas effective punishment did reduce the payoff. We scanned the subjects' brains while they learned about the defector's abuse of trust and determined the punishment. Effective punishment, as compared with symbolic punishment, activated the dorsal striatum, which has been implicated in the processing of rewards that accrue as a result of goal-directed actions. Moreover, subjects with stronger activations in the dorsal striatum were willing to incur greater costs in order to punish. Our findings support the hypothesis that people derive satisfaction from punishing norm violations and that the activation in the dorsal striatum reflects the anticipated satisfaction from punishing defectors.     

Tryptophan hydroxylase-2 controls brain serotonin synthesis

Dysregulation of brain serotonin contributes to many psychiatric disorders. Tryptophan hydroxylase-2 (Tph2), rather than Tph1, is preferentially expressed in the brain. We report a functional (C1473G) single-nucleotide polymorphism in mouse Tph2 that results in the substitution of Pro447 with Arg447 and leads to decreased serotonin levels in PC12 cells. Moreover, in BALB/cJ and DBA/2 mice that are homozygous for the 1473G allele, brain serotonin tissue content and synthesis are reduced in comparison to C57Bl/6 and 129X1/SvJ mice that are homozygous for the 1473C allele. Our data provide direct evidence for a fundamental role of Tph2 in brain serotonin synthesis.     

Social network size affects neural circuits in macaques

It has been suggested that variation in brain structure correlates with the sizes of individuals' social networks. Whether variation in social network size causes variation in brain structure, however, is unknown. To address this question, we neuroimaged 23 monkeys that had been living in social groups set to different sizes. Subject comparison revealed that living in larger groups caused increases in gray matter in mid-superior temporal sulcus and rostral prefrontal cortex and increased coupling of activity in frontal and temporal cortex. Social network size, therefore, contributes to changes both in brain structure and function. The changes have potential implications for an animal's success in a social context; gray matter differences in similar areas were also correlated with each animal's dominance within its social network.     

The community effects of industrialized farming: Social science research and challenges to corporate farming laws

Social scientists have a long history of concern with the effects of industrialized farming on communities. Recently, the topic has taken on new importance as corporate farming laws in a number of states are challenged by agribusiness interests. Defense of these laws often requires evidence from social science research that industrialized farming poses risks to communities. A problem is that no recent journal articles or books systematically assess the extent to which research to date provides evidence of these risks. This article addresses the gap in the literature. We evaluate studies investigating the effects of industrialized farming on community well-being from the 1930s to the present. Using a pool of 51 studies, we document the research designs employed, evaluate results as to whether adverse consequences were found, and delineate the aspects of community life that may be affected by industrialized farming. Of these studies, 57% found largely detrimental impacts, 25% were mixed, finding some detrimental impacts, and 18% found no detrimental impacts. Adverse impacts were found across an array of indicators measuring socioeconomic conditions, community social fabric, and environmental conditions. Few positive effects of industrialized farming were found across studies. The results demonstrate that public concern about industrialized farms is warranted. Scholars often debate whether research should be oriented around disciplines’ accumulated body of knowledge or, conversely, provide critical knowledge in the public interest. Social scientists’ long-term engagement in building the body of research on industrialized farming allows for accomplishment of both objectives.

Reward timing in the primary visual cortex

We discovered that when adult rats experience an association between visual stimuli and subsequent rewards, the responses of a substantial fraction of neurons in the primary visual cortex evolve from those that relate solely to the physical attributes of the stimuli to those that accurately predict the timing of reward. In addition to revealing a remarkable type of response plasticity in adult V1, these data demonstrate that reward-timing activity-a "higher" brain function-can occur very early in sensory-processing paths. These findings challenge the traditional interpretation of activity in the primary visual cortex.     

居民福祉及其与生态系统服务的关系研究进展

居民福祉的持续改善是社会发展的根本目的,然而人们对福祉的内涵理解并不统一,生态环境对居民福祉的贡献没有得到足够的重视。深入认识居民福祉与生态服务之间的关系,对促进居民福祉提升和生态保护的双赢、推动区域可持续发展具有重要意义。本研究首先对居民福祉的内涵、特征和评价方法进行了系统梳理和总结,随后探讨了居民福祉与生态系统服务的关系,最后针对当前研究中的问题和不足,指出未来研究方向。研究指出：居民福祉具有多维性、地域性和尺度效应;主客观指标相结合的评价方式是福祉测度的主要趋势;农户生计方式为深度解析居民福祉和生态系统服务的耦合机制提供了新视角;未来研究应融合多学科知识和方法,规范不同尺度的福祉评价体系,深入解析生态系统服务和居民福祉的耦合机制,将居民福祉纳入生态管理和科学决策。     

Genes and social behavior

What genes and regulatory sequences contribute to the organization and functioning of neural circuits and molecular pathways in the brain that support social behavior? How does social experience interact with information in the genome to modulate brain activity? Here, we address these questions by highlighting progress that has been made in identifying and understanding two key "vectors of influence" that link genes, the brain, and social behavior: (i) Social information alters gene expression in the brain to influence behavior, and (ii) genetic variation influences brain function and social behavior. We also discuss how evolutionary changes in genomic elements influence social behavior and outline prospects for a systems biology of social behavior.     

女性乡村旅游从业者主观幸福感的影响因素及提升策略研究

关注乡村旅游发展中女性旅游从业者主观幸福感具有较强现实意义。本研究构建了乡村旅游社区女性旅游从业者主观幸福感影响因素指标体系,以中国十大最美乡村之一的青杠树村为案例研究地,探究显著影响青杠树村女性旅游从业者主观幸福感的因素。结果表明,就业或创业机会、对家庭财产支配权、参与家庭决策权、家庭事务中话语权、日常生活丰富程度、社会认可与尊重7个因素对女性乡村旅游从业者主观幸福感产生显著影响。在此基础上,提出转型升级旅游产业、提高对女性认可与尊重、大力举办民俗活动、扩大旅游专题培训范围、发挥利益整合在冲突治理中的基础作用5个方面的女性乡村旅游从业者主观幸福感提升策略。     

BOLD responses reflecting dopaminergic signals in the human ventral tegmental area

Current theories hypothesize that dopamine neuronal firing encodes reward prediction errors. Although studies in nonhuman species provide direct support for this theory, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies in humans have focused on brain areas targeted by dopamine neurons [ventral striatum (VStr)] rather than on brainstem dopaminergic nuclei [ventral tegmental area (VTA) and substantia nigra]. We used fMRI tailored to directly image the brainstem. When primary rewards were used in an experiment, the VTA blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) response reflected a positive reward prediction error, whereas the VStr encoded positive and negative reward prediction errors. When monetary gains and losses were used, VTA BOLD responses reflected positive reward prediction errors modulated by the probability of winning. We detected no significant VTA BOLD response to nonrewarding events.     

Human voice recognition depends on language ability

The ability to recognize people by their voice is an important social behavior. Individuals differ in how they pronounce words, and listeners may take advantage of language-specific knowledge of speech phonology to facilitate recognizing voices. Impaired phonological processing is characteristic of dyslexia and thought to be a basis for difficulty in learning to read. We tested voice-recognition abilities of dyslexic and control listeners for voices speaking listeners' native language or an unfamiliar language. Individuals with dyslexia exhibited impaired voice-recognition abilities compared with controls only for voices speaking their native language. These results demonstrate the importance of linguistic representations for voice recognition. Humans appear to identify voices by making comparisons between talkers' pronunciations of words and listeners' stored abstract representations of the sounds in those words.     

Microcredit in theory and practice: using randomized credit scoring for impact evaluation

Microcredit institutions spend billions of dollars fighting poverty by making small loans primarily to female entrepreneurs. Proponents argue that microcredit mitigates market failures, spurs micro-enterprise growth, and boosts borrowers' well-being. We tested these hypotheses with the use of an innovative, replicable experimental design that randomly assigned individual liability microloans (of $225 on average) to 1601 individuals in the Philippines through credit scoring. After 11 to 22 months, we found evidence consistent with unmet demand at the current price (a roughly 60% annualized interest rate): Net borrowing increased in the treatment group relative to controls. However, the number of business activities and employees in the treatment group decreased relative to controls, and subjective well-being declined slightly. We also found little evidence that treatment effects were more pronounced for women. However, we did find that microloans increase ability to cope with risk, strengthen community ties, and increase access to informal credit. Thus, microcredit here may work, but through channels different from those often hypothesized by its proponents.     

Oxytocin, vasopressin, and the neurogenetics of sociality

There is growing evidence that the neuropeptides oxytocin and vasopressin modulate complex social behavior and social cognition. These ancient neuropeptides display a marked conservation in gene structure and expression, yet diversity in the genetic regulation of their receptors seems to underlie natural variation in social behavior, both between and within species. Human studies are beginning to explore the roles of these neuropeptides in social cognition and behavior and suggest that variation in the genes encoding their receptors may contribute to variation in human social behavior by altering brain function. Understanding the neurobiology and neurogenetics of social cognition and behavior has important implications, both clinically and for society.     

Science for whom? Agricultural development and the theory of induced innovation

Marxist social scientists have argued that the relationship between social and technical change is one of mutual interaction; innovation in the modes of production affects social organization, and social organization, in turn, has an impact on the development of novel modes of production. This consideration is of fundamental importance for the construction of any economic development policy. However, analyses of this critical relationship have been elaborated within a conceptual framework which most social scientists and policy makers who work within the framework of neoclassical economic thought find difficult to understand. When marxists argue that technical innovations are the product of a class conflict, non-marxist social scientists are left wondering about what the exact meaning of such a statement. Because marxists have been unable to communicate their message, their important insights into the relation between social and technical change have not been incorporated in contemporary development policy; this situation has often resulted in great social costs. In the past fifteen years, however, Yujiro Hayami and Vernon Ruttan have attempted to analyze the critical interaction of social and technical change using neo-classical economic concepts. I argue that their approach can be utilized to express marxist insights in a language accessible to non-marxist social scientists. The careful and critical adoption of this approach could provide the grounds for a more fruitful dialogue about the interaction of social and technical change, and aid the construction of a new development policy.     

构建大庆地区和谐劳动关系的思考

通过实证分析得出,大庆地区劳动关系总体趋于稳定,但在稳定的表面下,却存在大量劳动合同未签订、社会保险漏缴、拖欠劳动报酬等劳动权益被侵害的隐患。结合大庆地区经济发展背景,发现产生根源与当地强资本弱劳动直接相关外,还与监督维护不利息息相关。鉴于此,建议大庆地区应以调为先、以联为主,以稳为上构建和谐稳定的劳动关系作为当前社会工作的重中之重。     

Dynamic paternity allocation as a function of male plumage color in barn swallows

Paternity in male animals can be influenced by their phenotypic signals of quality. Accordingly, the behavior underlying patterns of paternity should be flexible as signals of quality change. To evaluate the dynamics of paternity allocation, we analyzed paternity before and after manipulating plumage coloration, a known signal of quality, in male barn swallows Hirundo rustica. We found that, in successive breeding bouts, only males whose plumage color was experimentally enhanced received greater paternity from their social mates, demonstrating evidence for flexible and dynamic paternity allocation and the importance for males of maintaining signals of quality well after pair bond formation.