Forest–tundra ecotone response to climate change in the Western Sayan Mountains,Siberia

Abstract

Tree response to climate trends is most likely to be observed in the forest–tundra ecotone, where mainly temperature limits tree growth. On-ground observation and multitemporal Landsat data were used in the analysis of forest–tundra ecotone dynamics (from 1976 to 2000) in the Western Sayan Mountains, Siberia. Observations showed an increase in forest stand crown closure, upward tree-line and regeneration shift and the transformation of Siberian pine and fir krummholz into arboreal forms. Closed stands were increasing in the area at a rate of 0.8% year^?1 and advancing their upper boundary at an altitudinal rate of 0.6 m year^?1; these changes were shown mainly by the transformation of sparse stands into closed stands. The altitudinal rate of regeneration propagation was estimated at 1.2 m year^?1. It was also found that these changes correlated positively with temperature trends. The response of tree vegetation to air temperature increase was dependent on topographic relief features (azimuth and slope steepness).     

Estimation of fire severity by use of Landsat TM images and its relevance to vegetation and topography in the 2000 Samcheok forest fire

The severity of the 2000 Samcheok forest fire was classified by using Landsat TM images, and the effects of vegetation structures and topographic conditions on fire severity were analyzed. The estimated normalized difference vegetation index differences between the pre and post-fire Landsat TM images were used as the criteria in determining the levels of fire severity–low, moderate, and extreme. According to the results from fire severity estimation, of the 10,600 ha forest stands, 28% was severely damaged by crown fires, 38% was moderately damaged, and the remaining 34% was damaged slightly by surface fires. The overall accuracy of the fire severity classification was 83% (Kappa coefficient = 0.76). The results of χ ²-tests showed that fire severity differed significantly with the vegetation and topographic conditions as follows. The coniferous stands, compared with the mixed and broad-leaved, were more vulnerable to fire damage; the higher the slope of fire sites, the greater the fire damage; the south was the most vulnerable aspect; fire severity of coniferous forest stands increased with increasing elevation. However, in the study area it was found that fire severity of broad-leaved forest stands were negatively related to the elevation of the corresponding fire sites and affected more by vegetation conditions rather than by topographic conditions.     

滇西北高山针叶林区主要林型下外生菌根真菌的分布

1985年和1986年,我们在云南西北部高山针叶林内,采用标准地调查和路线踏查相结合的方法,在杜鹃-冷杉林等7个主要林型中进行了外生菌根真菌调查。经对采集标本的鉴定,计有33个属约140余种外生菌根真菌。它们在各种林型下的分布有着一定的规律。其种类组成和分布的多度与林木的组成、土壤和地形条件,如海拔高度、坡向、坡度等有密切的关系。     

基于DEM的森林景观与自然度空间分异研究

该研究在Arc GIS支持下,建立乐东县数字高程模型(DEM)模型,提取海拔、坡度、坡位、坡向等各地形因子,将森林分为10种景观类型,并结合自然度与地形进行叠加分析,分析结果表明,森林资源景观分异频度与地形关系显著,各景观格局分异特征的形成,是自然选择的结果,也有人工干扰的因素。     

井冈山毛竹菱斑病调查与分析

通过设立固定样地,详细调查了井冈山毛竹菱斑病的危害特征和林分受害情况。调查发现,毛竹菱斑病主要危害2年生以上立竹,毛竹纯林、位于西北坡及海拔1 000 m左右的竹林感病较为严重;同时人为干扰会加快病害的蔓延,自然灾害会导致病害加重。     

闽南山地DH32-29桉树无性系的耐寒性调查分析

通过对华安葛山林场较高海拔山地种植的DH32-29桉树无性系的寒害进行调查,结果表明:幼龄林分寒害较重,林龄较大的林分寒害相对较轻;坡向、坡位、地形地势等是影响寒害程度的外在因素。在本区域较高海拔山地种植桉树应选择避寒环境,避免在盆地、洼地、坡地下坡和山谷等处种植;根据实践经验提出搞好林分抚育、冬前增施钾肥不施氮肥可以减轻寒害、合理搭配桉树品种、选择抗寒能力强的品种是避免寒害的根本措施。     

Stand development of Norway spruce dominated subalpine forests of the Swiss Alps

In densely populated regions, forests can help protect communities and infrastructures from natural hazards such as avalanches and rockfall. To promote the protective function, substantial efforts are made to actively manage forest stands. In 2009 alone the Swiss government invested more than 60 million sfr for the maintenance of protection forests. However, to date there has been no comprehensive evaluation of how the structural development of actively managed stands differs from that of passively managed stands in the Alps. Over the past century the structure of Norway-spruce dominated subalpine forests of the Swiss Alps has been changing and it is not clear how these changes affect the potential protective function of these forests, as well as other forest functions such as wildlife habitat. Furthermore, it is not clear how stand dynamics and structural changes differ between stands that are actively managed and those that are passively managed, and thus to what degree active efforts of forest management are contributing to stands that actually have a greater protective function than passively managed forests.In this study, we analyzed the dynamics of subalpine forests using time series of forest inventory data and examined the influence of active vs. passive management, exposition, distance to treeline, elevation and slope steepness on stand structure and dynamics. We analyzed data from 395 plots in dense, subalpine, spruce-dominated forests in the Swiss Alps. Data were collected during three distinct periods (1983-1985, 1993-1995 and 2004-2006) as part of the Swiss National Forest Inventory (NFI). Using regression trees and multivariate statistics, we investigated which factors have the most important influence on tree growth and stand development.Overall, forest density increased significantly over the last 20 years and the predominance of dense forests increased at higher elevations. However, forest density has not increased in actively managed forests over the past 10 years. In passively managed stands, density was higher on south-facing slopes than on north-facing slopes. The volume and density of dead wood has increased over the last 20 years in both actively managed and passively managed forests. Active management over the last 20 years has maintained forest conditions that adequately maintain stands’ protection functions in the Swiss Alps. However, stand development, especially increasing density, in the passively managed stands of the Swiss Alps suggests that the majority of passively managed stands also provide adequate protective functions against rock and avalanche hazards without the high costs of active management.     

青海云杉种实害虫发生危害研究

青海云杉种实害虫的主要种类为云杉球果小卷蛾,主要发生于天然林及母树木,虫害株率高达100%.-般低海拔林分重于高海拔林分,老母树林重于新母树林,纯林、疏林重于混交林和郁闭林分,远离天然林的种子园没有种实害虫的发生.在同一坡面上,随坡位升高虫害减轻,平缓林分重于陡坡林分,不同坡向间差异不明显;干燥林分重于湿润林分.平均单果虫口密度3头左右时,虫害果较健康果相比,出种率下降2.5%,健饱种数下降18.3%,虫蛀种子率达16.2%,千粒重下降0.93g,发芽率降低28%.     

Diversity of woody plant species and their relationship to physiographic factors in central Zagros forests (Case study: Perc forest,Khorramabad, Iran)

Topography is the most factor that has the greatest impact of all factor that affect the distribution.To study the diversity of trees and shrub species in the Perc forest situated in Khorramabad,Lorestan,140 circular plots of 1200 m~2 in a grid of 300 m 9 250 m were surveyed,using a systematic random sampling method.In each plot,the Margalef richness index,Shannon–Wiener diversity index,Hill's N_1 and Simpson indices and the evenness index of Simpson and Smith-Wilson were calculated and ordered on the basis of different classes of elevation,exposition and slope.The results indicated that slope did not have any significant effect on the indices.Exposition and elevation classes significant impacted the richness and diversity indices,but did not influence evenness.In general,the highest plant diversity was observed for slopes less than 15 %,northern aspects,without geographical direction,and elevations of 2100–2200 m.This information can be very useful in achieving the goals for sustainable management of forests.In addition to greater protection for regions with high diversity and reforestation(compatible species) in degraded area,we can help increase diversity in forests.     

Application of Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) to mountainous forests in Japan

Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE), originally developed by the USDA for agricultural lands and then used throughout the world, was applied in mountainous forest terrain in Japan. The slope length and steepness factors were extended for long slope lengths and steep slopes by recalculating the data from available literature in Japan and by using data from supplementary erosion experiments. As such, we conclude that the USLE can be used successfully to estimate surface erosion on long, steep mountainous forest slopes. The cover and management factors of many kinds of natural and artificial forest stands, cutting types, and disturbance regimes were calculated from the literature. The support practice factors of many types of soil and water conservation practices were also calculated from published information. Based on these results, we showed that the USLE can be applied to estimations of soil erosion from wide areas including many kinds of agricultural and forest lands. This study was funded by the Agricultural, Forestry, and Fishery Technology Council Office for comprehensive studies on agriculture, forestry, and fisheries and the agricultural, forestry, and fishery trading, resources, and environments.     

坡位对杉木纯林生长的影响

通过对不同坡位7年生杉木纯林生长的调查与研究,结果显示:坡位对杉木纯林各生长指标均有显著影响;林分的平均胸径、树高、冠幅、枝下高、平均单株材积、单位面积木材蓄积量等生长指标一致表现为下坡位>中坡位>上坡位。坡位间以胸径和树高差异最为显著,下坡位林分平均胸径达到10.59 cm,高出中坡位的11.6%,高出上坡位的20.0%;下坡位林分平均树高为7.25 m,高出中坡位的16.7%,高出上坡位的25.4%。下坡位林分的单位面积木材蓄积量要远远高于中坡位和上坡位的,下坡位林分的单位面积木材蓄积量分别高出上坡位的75.1%,中坡位的44.8%。     

Recent spruce decline with biotic pathogen infestation as a result of interacting climate,deposition and soil variables

Decline or health deterioration of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) dominated forest stands has recently been observed mainly in sub-mountainous parts of Central Europe. Forest inventory of 208 randomly distributed circular plots including field observations of spruce tree health and rot symptoms by honey fungus (Armillaria ostoyae) was used for assessing intensity of spruce forest health decline in a managed forest area of 12.7 th. ha located in Beskids Mts., NE Czech Republic. First, principal component analysis was used to separate inventory variables related to environmental stress (reduced apical increment, dry tree top and stem resin exudation due to A. ostoyae infestation) into PC1, and health deterioration symptoms associated with mechanical damage (peeling, crown breaks) into PC2. The first two principal components explained 59% of the total variability in health decline symptoms. Spatial variability of both principal components was explained using spatial lag regression model identified from a set of environmental variables including sulfur and nitrogen deposition, elevation, solar radiation, age of the forest stands and geological properties (geochemical reactivity index). Environmental stress (PC1) was associated with low elevations (sub-optimal for spruce), high level of nitrogen and sulfur deposition (their interaction), low geochemical reactivity and also stand age. On the other hand, mechanical damage (PC2) significantly increased with elevation and stand age. As the forest decline in Beskids Mts. is related to A. ostoyae spreading from local infestation hot spots, both principal components had a significant spatial autocorrelation, partly distorting the signal of environmental conditions. The results indicate that the disturbed forest soils by long-term acid deposition and subsequent nutrient degradation and more pronounced drought stress at low elevations are the most important drivers of the recent spruce health decline in Beskids Mts.     

Within- and between-site variations in leaf longevity in hinoki cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa) plantations in southwestern Japan

We investigated mean leaf retention time in order to elucidate the factors affecting regional and local variations in stand-level leaf longevity in hinoki cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa) plantations. Our study sites consisted of six stands at a low elevation (320–370 m a.s.l.) and 12 stands at a high elevation (850–970 m a.s.l.) in southwestern Japan. We also used published data on leaf longevity in stands at various elevations to clarify the regional-scale variations in leaf longevity and their relationships to environmental factors. At the regional scale, leaf longevity increased with increasing elevation and with decreasing air temperature, growing season length, and Kira’s warmth index across sites. Similar relationships were obtained for the variation in leaf mass. At the local scale, leaf longevity did not show a clear relationship with topographic position, soil water content, or soil C/N ratio. Contrary to our expectation, leaf longevity was negatively correlated with the leaf C/N ratio at both study sites, although the significance level was marginal. This indicates greater leaf longevity with better leaf nutrient status. Our results suggest that responses of leaf longevity in hinoki cypress stands to environmental factors would be more prominent at the regional scale than at the local scale, although large variation was detected at the local scale. Air temperature and growing season length appear to be the main drivers of the variation in leaf longevity at the regional scale, whereas the causal factors are unclear at the local scale.     

Influence of edge and topography on the vegetation in an Atlantic Forest remnant in northeastern Brazil

Like edge effects, variations in topography can influence the physiognomy and structural patterns of the vegetation due to the high dynamics encountered in inclined areas. We evaluated the effect of edges on the structure and physiognomy of the arboreal and woody understory communities in patches of an Atlantic Forest remnant in two distinct topographic positions. Four study situations were laid out (slope edge, top edge, slope interior, and top interior), with ten 10 × 10 m plots each to sample the arboreal components (circumference at breast height ≥15 cm), and ten 5 × 5 m plots (in the corner of each arboreal component plot) to sample the woody understory (circumference at ground level ≥3 cm and with circumference at breast height <15 cm). We investigated physiognomic and structural variables of edge and interior environments in similar topographic positions on both slope and top (level) areas of the same remnant forest. Physiognomic and structural differences between edge and interior vegetation were noted, and these were found to be still more evident when different topographic positions were considered. Physiognomic and structural variations between the edge and interior vegetation were more notable on slopes than on hill tops, indicating greater dynamics in areas with greater topographic inclinations.     

Leaf-fall phenology along a topography-mediated environmental gradient in a cool–temperate deciduous broad-leaved forest in Japan

Leaf-fall phenology was studied in a cool–temperate deciduous broad-leaved forest in central Japan in relation to the topographic environmental gradients that occur along a short mountain slope. Leaf-fall phenology was described quantitatively using data from leaf litter collected along the slope. In autumn, leaf fall at the study site tended to occur slightly earlier on the upper slope than on the lower slope. This pattern was found at both the stand and the species levels. Our results suggest that leaf-fall phenology may be affected by difference in microclimatic conditions, because environmental conditions are thought to be more severe on the upper slope than on the lower slope. The less intensive methods used in this study, the litter trap method, and Dixon’s model succeeded in quantifying the phenological patterns of leaf fall within stands and within species along the short mountain slope.     

Abiotic and biotic drivers of species diversity in understory layers of cold temperate coniferous forests in North China

Understory plants are important components of forest ecosystems and play a crucial role in regulating community structures, function realization, and community succession. However, little is known about how abiotic and biotic drivers affect the diversity of understory species in cold temperate coniferous forests in the semiarid climate region of North China. We hypothesized that(1) topographic factors are important environmental factors affecting the distribution and variation of understory strata,and(2) different understory strata respond differently to environmental factors; shrubs may be significantly affected by the overstory stratum, and herbs may be more affected by surface soil conditions. To test these hypotheses, we used the boosted regression tree method to analyze abiotic and biotic environmental factors that influence understory species diversity, using data from 280 subplots across 56 sites in cold temperate coniferous forests of North China.Elevation and slope aspect were the dominant and indirect abiotic drivers affecting understory species diversity, and individual tree size inequality(DBH variation) was the dominant biotic driver of understory species diversity; soil water content was the main edaphic factors affecting herb layers. Elevation, slope aspect, and DBH variation accounted for 36.4, 14.5, and 12.1%, respectively, of shrub stratum diversity. Shrub diversity decreased with elevation within the range of altitude of this study, but increased with DBH variation; shrub diversity was highest on north-oriented slopes. The strongest factor affecting herb stratum species diversity was slope aspect, accounting for 25.9% of the diversity, followed by elevation(15.7%), slope(12.2%), and soil water content(10.3%). The highest herb diversity was found on southeast-oriented slopes and the lowest on northeast-oriented slopes; herb diversity decreased with elevation and soil water content, but increased with slope. The results of the study provide a reference for scientific management and biodiversity protection in cold temperate coniferous forests of North China.     

Estimating the age–diameter relationship of oak species in Switzerland using nonlinear mixed-effects models

Tree growth plays a key role in forest dynamics, yet little attention has been paid to quantifying tree age–diameter relationships. Predicting diameter growth of oaks is especially important due to their role in nature conservation and adaptive forest management under climate change. Thus, we (1) identified environmental variables that shape age–diameter relationships of oaks and (2) quantified the accuracy of predictions based on these variables. We determined the age–diameter relationship of 243 oaks (Quercus spp.) growing in Switzerland by using tree-ring samples. Nonlinear mixed-effects models based on a modified Chapman-Richards equation were fitted with environmental variables included as covariates. The fixed effects elevation, slope and water-holding capacity were most important in shaping the age–diameter relationships. Lower elevations, steeper slopes, north-facing aspects, higher water-holding capacities and moister summers resulted in larger maximum diameters. For 75 % of the oaks, age–diameter relationships predicted by the fixed effects matched fairly well the observations (root mean square error between predictions and observations <6 cm); the inclusion of random effects reduced root mean square errors for 86 % of the trees. These results suggest that water runoff plays a key role for the age–diameter relationships, accompanied by limiting temperature effects at higher elevations. The fixed effects covered variability in site quality, whereas the random effects included tree-specific deviations from expected age–diameter relationships, potentially due to neighbourhood effects such as stand density and competition.     

Topography and biomass characteristics of a forested catchment in the Northern Appalachians

Using data from 241 plots the variability of site index and biomass in a forested catchment was represented by the distribution of the appropriate differences between plot values and the average values for the whole catchment period. Relationships were derived that express the above differences as functions of azimuth and inclination of forest sites. They yield highest site index values for east-facing slopes and highest biomass values for north-facing slopes. The west-facing slopes are characterized by minimum values of site index and biomass. On west-facing slopes site index decreases when slope inclination increases; on east- and north-facing slopes site index increases with inclination. On south-facing slopes biomass decreases when slope inclination increases; on north-facing slopes biomass increases with slope inclination.For partial areas of the catchment, the difference between computed and observed site index appears between 3.5% and 6.9% of its average value for the whole catchment. The appropriate difference for biomass is from 12.2% of 35.6% of its average value for the whole catchment. Both differences reach maximum values in the northern part of the catchment that is characterized by greater stoniness.