Initial growth of Pinus sylvestris advance reproduction following varying degrees of release

Initial growth of released Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) advance reproduction in nine stands dominated by Scots pine was studied in north Sweden. In each stand, one 40 × 40 m plot was established for each of four different intensities of overstorey removal: 0% (control), 60%, 85%, and 100%. Seedings were monitored on one 18 × 8 m sub‐plot at the centre of each plot for two growing seasons following overstorey treatment. Only undeformed seedlings, uninjured before treatment and during the study period, were considered. In the second growing season, needle lengths and number of laterals increased or tended to increase compared to the control for all treatments. Compared to the control, leading annual shoot lengths for all treatments initially tended to decrease (seedlings > 10.0 cm), but increased or tended to increase (all seedlings) during the second growing season. It is concluded that seedling performance generally improved with increasing basal area removal.     

Effect of slash removal on Gremmeniella abietina incidence on Pinus sylvestris after clear-cutting in northern Sweden

The Gremmeniella abietina outbreak in Sweden in 2001-2003 forced forest owners to sanitary clear-cut large areas of middle-aged Pinus sylvestris stands. There is, however, little knowledge of effective reforestation of P. sylvestris on G. abietina-infected sites. Gremmeniella abietina disease incidence on P. sylvestris seedlings planted in 2003 was studied with and without (control) removal of infected P. sylvestris slash. Removed slash was piled in stacks around the regeneration plots. The seedlings were planted within 1 year after sanitation felling on three sites in northern Sweden. One year after planting, G. abietina pycnidia were found on 32% of the control seedlings and total infection, including stem cankers, reached 44%. Total and G. abietina-induced mortality was 15 and 10%, respectively. The method of removing and piling the infected slash reduced the number of infected seedlings by 50% and seedling mortality by 27% 1 year after planting, compared with control. Consequently, even if there is a clear sanitation effect of removing infected slash to the sides of the regeneration area, it does not eradicate the infection source from the stands. Postponed planting, slash burning or complete removal of the infected slash is needed to minimize the infection risk. The positive correlation found between slash coverage and infection rate indicates that clear-cuts with large amounts of infected slash should be given priority for slash treatment.     

Effects of silicon-rich soil amendments on growth,mortality and bark feeding damage of Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) seedlings under field conditions

Alternative methods of protection are required against feeding by the large pine weevil (Hylobius abietis) on the bark of conifer seedlings. Silicon (Si) has been shown to enhance the resistance of plants to insect herbivores. This study investigated the effects of low doses of Si-rich soil amendments on growth, mortality and bark feeding damage of Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) seedlings. Two-year old seedlings were grown, individually, in soil taken from a tree nursery treated with coal ash, peat ash, rice husk ash, slag, sodium metasilicate or a commercially available Si fertiliser (Pro-Tekt) and planted out on two reforestation sites in Ireland. Seedlings grew well (about 20% growth in terms of height, 66% in root collar diameter, after two growing seasons), and Si-rich amendments did not have a significant effect on growth or mortality. Bark feeding damage on Si-treated seedlings did not vary significantly from control seedlings. Bark Si concentrations were not significantly larger in treated seedlings than in control seedlings, but control seedlings already had comparatively high bark Si concentrations (560?mg?kg^?1 dry tissue). In conclusion, Sitka spruce seedlings grown in the presence of Si-rich soil amendments prior to planting did not show greater resistance to weevil feeding under the present conditions.     

Freeze testing and field mortality of Pinus sylvestris (L.) in northern Sweden

Six short‐term freezing experiments were carried out on 24 one‐year‐old single‐tree open pollinated families of Pinus sylvestris (L.) representing four populations in northerly Sweden (latitude 62°10'N to 66°50'N). Two experiments were conducted in a climate chamber, two in a greenhouse and two outdoors. For freeze testing the plants were exposed to ‐10°C for three hours in a freezing chamber. A freezing experiment in a climate chamber of 28 one‐year‐old full‐sib families (half diallel with two parents from each population) was also carried out. The results were related to the mortality of the same open pollinated families over the first 18 years in the field. The ranking of the populations was the same in all six freezing experiments as in the field. Significant differences in frost resistance between one‐year‐old open pollinated families were found within all populations except the most northern one. The correlations within populations between frost resistance and field mortality varied considerably between populations and freezing experiments. The results from the two greenhouse experiments showed the best correlations with the cumulative field mortality after 18 years. The freezing test of the 28 full‐sib families resulted in the same mutual ranking, according to the general combining ability of parents within populations, as was obtained from the freezing tests of single tree families.     

呼伦贝尔沙地樟子松天然更新苗影响因素的研究

通过对呼伦贝尔沙地樟子松天然林天然更新苗特征及其影响因素的研究,结果表明:母树密度不同,天然更新苗数量和年龄结构存在明显差异;樟子松天然更新苗年龄结构在时间上具有明显的不连续性,樟子松天然更新苗密度因林分类型的差异明显不同。在疏林地(树龄30 a),平均更新苗密度每2 500 m2为13株,在火烧迹地平均更新苗密度每600 m2为28.5株,樟子松单株样地平均更新苗密度每600 m2为118.8株。不同年龄的天然更新苗保存密度和年平均降水量有显著或极显著关系,且随着林分郁闭度的增加,研究区天然更新苗密度呈现降低的趋势。     

Seedling shoot,needle and bud development in three provenances of Pinus sylvestris and Pinus contorta cultivated in northern Sweden

The patterns of current‐year shoot, needle and terminal bud elongation in seedlings of three Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and three lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta Dougl. var. latifolia Engelm.) provenances were compared during the third and fourth growing seasons after planting. Lodgepole pine produced longer shoots and buds than did Scots pine, mainly because lodgepole pine formed more stem units and elongated at a faster rate. Stem unit length and the duration of shoot and bud elongation differed relatively little between species and provenances. Lammas or polycyclic growth occurred in some lodgepole pine provenances, but not in any Scots pine provenance, and was associated with enhanced shoot elongation. Needle elongation commenced earlier, proceeded at a faster rate, and was greater in lodgepole pine than in Scots pine, but ceased about the same time in all species and provenances. The heat sum required to attain 50% of final length was lower for shoots and needles in lodgepole pine than in Scots pine, and for shoots in northern provenances than in southern ones. Mitotic activity in the apical meristem of the terminal bud, which occurred less than one week after the seedlings were free from snow, started and ceased about the same time in each species, but was higher in lodgepole pine than in Scots pine early in the shoot elongation period.     

沙地樟子松天然更新影响因素探讨

根据气象资料和诸多研究结果,从沙地樟子松自然更新过程以及原产地气象因子的特征等方面进一步分析了沙地樟子松天然更新的影响因素,结果表明：沙地樟子松当年4～5月自然落种的种子是实现自然更新的物质基础;降雪日数、积雪日数、5～7月相对湿度、5～7月平均温度等是影响沙地樟子松自然更新的主要因素。其中,5～7月相对湿度、5～7月平均温度变化特征是影响沙地樟子松自然落种的种子萌发及其幼苗生长的关键因素,而降雪日数、积雪日数是影响并决定当年幼苗安全越冬的保证。     

Harvesting of logging residues affects diameter growth and pine weevil attacks on Norway spruce seedlings

Removal of logging residues causes significant nutrient losses from the harvesting site. Furthermore, collection of residues into piles could lead to small-scale differences in establishment conditions for seedlings. We studied the effects of stem-only (SOH) and aboveground whole-tree harvesting (WTH) on Norway spruce (Picea abies) seedling growth and pine weevil (Hylobius abietis) damage at two sites (SE and W Norway). We also compared two planting environments within the WTH plots (WTH-0: areas with no residues, WTH-1: areas where residue piles had been placed and removed before planting). In practice, one-third of the residues were left on site after WTH. After three growing seasons there were no differences for height or diameter increment between SOH and WTH (WTH-1 and WTH-0 combined) treatments. However, relative diameter increment was largest for WTH-1 seedlings and lowest for WTH-0 seedlings. Few seedlings sustained pine weevil attacks at the W Norway site, with no differences among treatments. At the SE Norway site, the percent of seedlings damaged by pine weevils and average debarked area were significantly higher after WTH (82% and 3.3?cm²) compared to SOH (62% and 1.7?cm²). We conclude that WTH may lead to spatial differences in establishment conditions.     

Survival and vitality of Gremmeniella abietina on Pinus sylvestris slash in northern Sweden

Survival and vitality of Gremmeniella abietina on Pinus sylvestris slash was studied in northern Sweden during 2003 and 2004. Once a month between September 2003 and April 2004, two to three trees were cut down and debranched. Shoots with pycnidia were sampled at the felling date and then at every consecutive month. The percentage of germinated conidia from each shoot was calculated after 24, 48 and 72 h incubation. The vitality of G. abietina pycnidia in the slash remained high the whole period. Intact pycnidia were found on slash several months after the time of conidial sporulation, which indicates that new pycnidia may be produced on dead pine branches. Sampling of shoots from slash on 13‐ to 18‐month‐old clear‐cuts showed conidial germination capacity as high as in pycnidia collected in fresh slash. Due to survival of G. abietina in slash it is recommended to postpone planting of P. sylvestris seedlings in northern boreal areas to the third vegetation period after sanitary clear‐cuts.     

沙地樟子松散生单木的天然更新幼苗空间分布模型

【目的】构建具有清晰空间结构的樟子松天然更新幼苗空间分布模型,阐明沙地樟子松散生单木的天然更新幼苗空间分布特征,为重要固沙乔木樟子松天然更新和扩张方向预测提供参考依据。【方法】以呼伦贝尔沙地天然樟子松散生单木为研究对象,利用VonMises分布和韦伯分布构建具有清晰空间结构的樟子松散生单木天然更新幼苗分布模型。基于10株散生樟子松母树及其1374株更新幼苗观测数据,采用由最小二乘法估计模型参数,并应用模型随机模拟樟子松散生单木天然更新幼苗的空间分布状况。【结果】1)樟子松散生单木的天然更新幼苗分布符合Janzen-Connell假说,但更新幼苗分布具有明显的方向性,主要分布在方位角(正北为0°,顺时针旋转)为0°~127°和216°~360°2个区间中,更新幼苗与母树的距离集中在0.37~10.95m,树龄较高的幼苗主要分布在距离母树较远的地方;樟子松散生单木的天然更新幼苗空间分布模型由更新幼苗数量模型、方向分布模型和距离分布模型构成,基于模型发现,樟子松天然更新幼苗的平均扩散方向为北偏东16°,平均扩散距离为5.37m;应用樟子松散生单木天然更新幼苗模型模拟地径为70cm的樟子松母树更新幼苗群体空间格局,生成的樟子松单木天然更新幼苗共97株,模拟的更新幼苗空间分布与观测一致。【结论】樟子松散生单木天然更新幼苗在扩散距离上符合Janzen-Connell假说,但分布具有方向性,绝大部分幼苗分布在母树北面。樟子松幼苗存活要求较低的太阳辐射微环境,没有遮荫的环境不利于天然更新。樟子松散生单木的天然更新幼苗空间分布模型可清晰描述单株樟子松周围更新幼苗的空间格局。     

Replanting conifer seedlings after pine weevil emigration in spring decreases feeding damage and seedling mortality

Replanting at appropriate times after harvesting a coniferous forest stand can help efforts to suppress seedling mortality caused by the pine weevil Hylobius abietis, but optimal times are uncertain. We hypothesized that planting in June rather than May in the third season after harvest would reduce feeding damage by the pine weevil and increase seedling survival rates in central Sweden, where new-generation weevils mainly fly away from their development sites in May/early June. An experimental test of the hypothesis in eight clear-cuts confirmed that planting in June instead of May reduced proportions of seedlings attacked by pine weevil, bark removal from seedlings’ stems, and proportions of seedlings killed by feeding damage. These differences between seedlings planted in May and June declined to some extent with time but still remained significant after two growing seasons. The total seedling mortality after two seasons did, however, not differ significantly between seedlings planted in May and June. Overall, 29% of all seedlings were killed by pine weevil, 4.0% by Hylastes bark beetles, and 2.3% by drought. The results indicate that replanting in spring during the third season after harvest can advantageously continue until mid-June with respect to damage and mortality.     

Temporal patterns of seedling mortality by pine weevils (Hylobius abietis) after prescribed burning in northern Sweden

Damage by the large pine weevil, Hylobius abietis (L.), is a major threat to conifer plantations throughout Eurasia, but damage is usually less severe in northern areas. However, pine weevil damage seems to increase if the sites are burnt. The aim of this study was to determine the effects of variations in the time of planting (with respect to the total age of the clear-cut and the time since burning) on pine weevil damage to seedlings on burnt sites in northern Sweden. The study also explored whether there is an optimal time for planting at which damage levels are reduced to acceptable levels. Ten sites were selected in an inland area of northern Sweden where pine weevils are normally scarce. The sites were dry–mesic and represented a range of times since clear-cutting and since burning. The sites were planted in June 1998, 1999 and 2000 with 1-year-old container-grown seedlings of Norway spruce [Picea abies (L.) Karst.]. Pine weevil damage was reduced if planting was done no earlier than 3 years after clear-cutting and no earlier than 2 years after burning. Planting too soon after burning, irrespective of the age of the clear-cut, resulted in unacceptably high damage levels.     

沙地樟子松林与天然更新问题探讨

呼伦贝尔沙地是我国重要的樟子松林种源地。从1955年开始在其他地区进行引种造林并获得成功,但是多数引种地的樟子松人工林天然更新却不能正常进行。本文结合资料论述了沙地樟子松天然林起源与分布和自然更新特点,并分析探讨了引种地沙地樟子松人工林自然更新的障碍、影响因素以及冬季降雪影响更新等可能的关键因子等问题。     

Site index variation with latitude and altitude in IUFRO Pinus contorta provenance experiments in western Canada and northern Sweden

Site index was calculated for 66 experimental plantations in western Canada and northern Sweden, containing a wide range of Pinus contorta provenances drawn from seed lots belonging to the IUFRO international provenance testing program. Growth data from recommended provenances were used to calculate the site index. Site index was defined as predicted average height of the 100 largest trees by diameter ha^‐1 at age 50.

Latitude and altitude explained 56% of site index variation by fitting the function:

Site Index (m) = 99.8 ‐ 1.226 ? Latitude (°N) ‐ 0.01205 ? Altitude (m).

The site index pattern indicated that forest productivity of the sites investigated decreased approximately by 0.8 m³ ha^‐1 yr^‐1 per one‐degree latitude northwards and per 100 m increase in altitude.     

Timber quality and volume increment of advance growth and planted Pinus sylvestris

Timber quality and increment of Scots pines were analysed in two adjacent stands in northern Sweden. One stand originated from advance growth, and one from planted seedlings. Height increment of advance growth that was higher than 1.3 m when released was slow compared with advance growth lower than 1.3 m and planted trees. Timber quality of advance growth, > 1.3 m at release, was poor due to high incidence of stem damage, most likely inflicted during the logging operation. Potential timber quality of planted Scots pines was better among dominated than dominating trees. Volume production was more than twice as high in the plantation as in the stand originating from advance growth. Slash burning after clear felling had a positive effect on production in the plantation.     

呼伦贝尔沙地樟子松天然林自然落种特征研究

研究了呼伦贝尔沙地樟子松天然林自然落种及其种子萌发特征,结果表明:丰年期落种器共接到99粒种子,且集中分布在母树的正东、东北侧,欠年期则接到落种42粒且集中分布在正东、东南侧。丰年期不同方位、不同落种距离接到的种子平均发芽率为54.5%,欠年期为28.6%。樟子松林缘落种的传播距离范围可以达到25 m,并且在林缘外5 m范围内种子数量最多,林缘外5～20 m范围平均发芽率为60.9%。樟子松单株树木下土壤种子库中种子数量在4 m处最高,并且随着距树干距离的增加种子数量也随之降低,种子总数由2 m处样方的16粒降低到10 m处样方的7粒,降低百分率达129%。     

沙地樟子松天然林种子库特征研究

本文研究结果表明,樟子松天然林土壤种子库种子数量随着距树干距离（2-6 m）的增加有增加的趋势,但距树干8 m以后则降低,在距树干2-10 m范围内东侧、东南存在种子的概率占80%,西侧和北侧范围存在种子的概率为60%;樟子松天然落种数量更偏向于南侧,东侧和北侧落种数量偏少,并在树冠外围8-20m收集到的自然落种数量相对稳定;樟子松自然落种方位不同,种子发芽率也不同。距离树干4 m范围,种子发芽率平均值为71.5%;距离树干8-20 m,收集的种子发芽率依次为44.1%、70.8%、46.9%和36.1%;樟子松天然林土壤种子库内种子发芽率为58.2%,比当年自然落种平均发芽率降低17.6%。     

沙地樟子松天然林野生苗特征研究

选择不同密度母树、单株母树和火烧迹地等3种类型的样地,调查了樟子松天然更新苗特征。结果表明:母树密度不同,天然更新苗数量和年龄结构存在明显差异;樟子松天然更新苗年龄结构在时间上具有明显的不连续性,天然更新苗密度因林分类型的差异明显不同,并且和母树立地条件、树龄、空间分布等因素有关。     

沙地樟子松林天然更新研究进展

沙地樟子松是我国北方地区广泛引种的主要固沙造林树种,但在引种地只有少数地区能够完成自然更新过程。本文从沙地樟子松落种特征、土壤种子库、种子扩散、种子萌发、更新苗特征、天然更新类型以及影响天然更新因素等方面综述了沙地樟子松天然更新研究现状,并探讨其天然更新的关键影响因素,同时提出了研究展望。     

Long-term Growth Effects Following Forest Nitrogen Fertilization in Pinus sylvestris and Picea abies Stands in Sweden

Forest nitrogen (N) fertilization induces changes in the soil and soil microorganisms that could hypothetically affect the long-term productivity of the soil. The tree growth response following a normal (i.e. 150 kg N ha^?1) single shoot N fertilization has a duration of 7–10 yrs. The aim of this study was to investigate whether any residual effects on tree growth persist, which could be attributed to previous N fertilization. The study included six Pinus sylvestris L. and three Picea abies (L.) Karst. experimental sites, sampled for growth parameters 14–28 yrs after the last fertilization. Residual growth effects were on average small, and not statistically significant. Negative residual growth effects of varying duration could be discerned, especially at low-fertility P. sylvestris sites. However, there was an overall tendency for growth to increase in the long term after N fertilization. The main conclusion is that operational forest N fertilization with a normal N dose should not be regarded as a threat to long-term forest production.