苦马豆素抑制N-聚糖加工对生殖激素分泌功能的影响

苦马豆素（SW）中毒可引起生殖激素分泌紊乱,其中,促性腺激素是糖蛋白,由N-聚糖糖基化修饰调控其活性和功能。SW是N-聚糖加工过程中ɑ-甘露糖苷酶的抑制剂,而SW如何通过改变N-聚糖加工过程进一步影响生殖激素的分泌功能尚不明确。因此,本试验建立SW染毒妊娠期小鼠模型,利用MALDI-TOF-MS质谱法检测糖蛋白N-聚糖糖链结构的变化,分析N-聚糖加工过程中糖基酶的活性和生殖激素水平及其受体蛋白表达量。随着SW染毒时间的延长,染毒组小鼠垂体前叶糖蛋白的5种复合型N-聚糖糖链结构消失,而新增加3种杂合型N-聚糖糖链结构;N-聚糖糖基转移酶和糖苷酶的活性均显著下降;进一步发现染毒组小鼠卵巢促性腺激素受体、雌二醇和孕酮受体蛋白表达量显著低于对照组,并且生殖激素分泌水平也出现显著下降。SW可显著抑制N-聚糖糖基酶的活性使糖蛋白上N-聚糖糖链结构发生改变,影响促性腺激素及其受体的活性,使其对下游类固醇激素分泌的调控作用失衡,最终导致小鼠妊娠期生殖激素分泌紊乱。     

Avian reproductive endocrinology.

Hypothalamic-releasing factors regulate the secretion of anterior pituitary hormones. The anterior pituitary gland secretes the same six hormones as found in mammals: FSH, LH, prolactin, GH (somatotropic hormone), ACTH, and TSH, plus the melanotropic hormone. The endocrine hormones of the avian posterior pituitary gland concerned with reproduction are mesotocin and AVT. The pineal gland, through the secretion of the hormone melatonin, modulates the periodic autonomic functions of the central nervous system. The ovary produces estrogens, progestogens, and androgenic compounds. The testes produce testosterones and progesterone. The thyroid glands produce two hormones, T4 and T3. The avian adrenal glands produce corticosterone and aldosterone. The bursa of Fabricius is considered an endocrine organ since it is involved in the production of humoral factors. The male reproductive system undergoes hormonal changes associated with puberty, the breeding season, and molt. Some avian species undergo a type of disintegration and seasonal reconstruction of the testis and epididymis. The relationship of the ovarian follicular hormones and the plasma hormones varies depending on the stage of the reproductive cycle and the seasonal photostimulation. Female birds may conceive in the absence of a mate as a result of the fertile period phenomena. The blood chemistry of laying birds is different from that seen in nonlaying hens. Domestication has had a definite influence on the hormone cycles of some avian species. This may lead to certain reproductive problems.     

抑制素免疫在动物繁殖中应用的研究进展

抑制素是性腺分泌的一种糖蛋白激素，它具有抑制垂体促卵泡素合成和分泌的作用。抑制素具有免疫反应性，抑制素免疫在提高动物繁殖性能方面有良好的应用前景。作者阐述了抑制素的结构和特性以及抑制素免疫的机理、类型、方法和影响因素及其在畜牧业中的应用。     

抑制素、活化素和卵泡抑素研究进展

抑制素、卵泡抑素和活化素是3种参与垂体促卵泡素调控过程的糖蛋白激素,随着对促卵泡素调控过程的深入了解,发现这3种蛋白在动物生殖周期中发挥着重要的作用。文章主要就抑制素、卵泡抑素和活化素的结构特征、生理功能以及抑制素和卵泡抑素对活化素生物学活性的抑制机理进行了综述。     

The anterior pituitary gland: lessons from livestock

There has been extensive research of the anterior pituitary gland of livestock and poultry due to the economic (agricultural) importance of physiological processes controlled by it including reproduction, growth, lactation and stress. Moreover, farm animals can be biomedical models or useful in evolutionary/ecological research. There are for multiple sites of control of the secretion of anterior pituitary hormones. These include the potential for independent control of proliferation, differentiation, de-differentiation and/or inter-conversion cell death, expression and translation, post-translational modification (potentially generating multiple isoforms with potentially different biological activities), release with or without a specific binding protein and intra-cellular catabolism (proteolysis) of pituitary hormones. Multiple hypothalamic hypophysiotropic peptides (which may also be produced peripherally, e.g. ghrelin) influence the secretion of the anterior pituitary hormones. There is also feedback for hormones from the target endocrine glands. These control mechanisms show broadly a consistency across species and life stages; however, there are some marked differences. Examples from growth hormone, prolactin, follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone will be considered. In addition, attention will be focused on areas that have been neglected including the role of stellate cells, multiple sub-types of the major adenohypophyseal cells, functional zonation within the anterior pituitary and the role of multiple secretagogues for single hormones.     

Sexual Activity Influences the Secretion of Reproductive Hormones in the Stallion

Contents The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of sexual activity on concentrations of reproductive hormones in plasma of stallions. In the first experiment, two groups of stallions were monitored for secretion of luteinizing hormone (LH), testosterone and oestradiol from the beginning until shortly after the end of the breeding season. One group of animals were reserve stallions not used for breeding (group 1, n = 10), the other group consisted of active breeding sires (group 2, n = 8). Blood samples were withdrawn from March to August at 14-day intervals. In sexually nonactive stallions (group 1), seasonal variations in LH, testosterone and oestradiol occurred and concentrations of these hormones reached a maximum in May (p < 0.05). In the breeding stallions (group 2), no significant changes in the concentrations of these hormones were found between March and August. Concentrations of LH and testosterone were significantly lower in breeding stallions than in reserve stallions at most blood sampling times (p < 0.05). In the reserve stallions, oestradiol concentrations were significantly higher than in the breeding stallions in April and in June (p < 0.05). In a second experiment, the effect of regular sexual activity (semen collection three times per week) on the concentration of LH, testosterone and oestradiol was tested in a group of breeding stallions after a period of sexual rest for several weeks. Blood samples were taken once daily starting the day before the first semen collection was performed. Testosterone concentration significantly decreased in the first days after semen collection started (p < 0.05), while LH secretion was only transiently decreased and no effects on oestradiol concentration were found. In both experiments, semen parameters were within the normal range of fertile stallions. No correlations between the sexual drive of the stallions and concentration of reproductive hormones occurred. It can be concluded that in the stallion the secretion of reproductive hormones is influenced by sexual activity. Regular semen collection seems to inhibit testosterone release by unknown mechanisms while the effects on LH and oestradiol secretion are less pronounced.     

Clinical use of GnRH agonists in canine and feline species

GnRH (gonadotrophin releasing hormone) is a key hormone of reproductive function in mammals; agonist forms have been largely developed, and data concerning their use in small animal reproduction are now abundant. GnRH agonists act by a two-step mechanism. First, their agonist properties on the pituitary will cause marked LH (luteinizing hormone) and FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone) secretion into the bloodstream, accompanied by an increase in the concentrations of sex steroid hormones. Then, in case of constant administration, GnRH agonists will lead to pituitary desensitization, and FSH and LH levels will collapse. These two effects have been widely documented, and these compounds have many potential benefits in a clinical context, capitalizing both on their stimulating and sterilizing effects.     

miR-93对延边黄牛垂体细胞GH分泌的影响

为了分析血液外泌体miRNA对延边黄牛垂体细胞生长激素（GH）分泌的影响,试验选择在延边黄牛和韩延牛血液外泌体中存在显著差异表达的miR-93,分析其对延边黄牛垂体细胞GH分泌的影响机制。试验首先进行延边黄牛垂体细胞的原代培养,之后将miR-93的mimics（miR-93-mi组）、mimics对照品（NC对照组）、inhibitor（miR-93-in组）、inhibitor对照品（iNC组）转染给已建立的垂体原代细胞,48 h后收集细胞,提取总mRNA和总蛋白。试验利用targetscan和RNAhybrid分析软件对miR-93的靶基因进行预测,并利用双荧光素酶报告基因系统对miR-93的靶关系进行验证;利用实时荧光定量PCR和Western blotting技术分别检测靶基因mRNA转录和蛋白的表达情况,结果表明,miR-93靶向了生长激素释放激素受体（GHRHR）的3'UTR;与NC对照组比较,miR-93-mi组的延边黄牛垂体细胞中GH mRNA转录和蛋白表达均极显著低于NC对照组（P<0.01）;miR-93-mi组的GHRH mRNA转录和蛋白表达均极显著低于NC对照组（P<0.01）,而miR-93-in组的GHRHR蛋白表达显著高于iNC对照组（P<0.05）。说明miR-93可通过调节GHRHR的表达而调控延边黄牛垂体细胞GH的分泌,进而调控延边黄牛的生长发育。     

日粮能量对育成柴鸡外周血浆促性腺激素与垂体分泌促性腺激素的影响

采用单因素方差随机试验,选用14周龄育成柴鸡36只,随机的分成3个处理,每个处理3个重复,每个重复4只鸡,分别饲喂低能、对照、高能的日粮,试验期为28d。结果显示,育成柴鸡外周血浆FSH浓度,低能、对照与高能差异极限著（P〈0.01）,并且随着日龄增加FSH浓度逐渐增加。育成柴鸡外周血浆LH浓度第1周时低能组与对照、高能组差异极显著（P〈0.01）,对照与高能组差异不显著;第2、3周处理低能组、对照、高能组差异极显著（P〈0.01）,并且随着日龄增加浓度增加。育成柴鸡体外培养垂体细胞分泌FSH、LH高能组与低能、对照组差异极显著（P〈0.01）,而低能组与对照组差异不显著。结果表明,日粮能量通过下丘脑-垂体-性腺轴影响育成柴鸡生殖机能。     

家养动物FSHR基因的结构功能与表达调控研究进展

促卵泡激素FSH及其受体在卵巢的卵泡发育和激素生成以及睾丸的精子生成中起关键的调节作用。促卵泡激素受体FSHR与家养动物的繁殖能力有密切关系。提高家畜产仔率是确保我国动物养殖业持续健康发展的主要方向。已有研究表明,FSHR基因对动物的卵巢卵泡生长发育和精子发生具有巨大的调控作用,并且该基因与家养动物的繁殖性状,繁殖能力存在一定的关联性。本文章旨在介绍FSHR的结构,表达和生物学功能,以及在家养动物(牛,绵羊,山羊,猪和鸡)方面的研究展开综述,并且对其存在的问题及发展方向提出展望。     

GnIH与INH表位多肽疫苗主动免疫对甘肃高山细毛羊生殖激素的影响

本试验通过合成促性腺激素类的抑制激素——抑制素(inhibit hormone,INH)与促性腺激素抑制激素(gonadotropin inhibiting hormone,GnIH)的INH表位多肽疫苗和GnIH表位多肽疫苗,主动免疫甘肃高山细毛羊并对促卵泡素(follicle stimulating hormone,FSH)和促黄体素(luteinizing hormone,LH)激素水平进行比较分析。试验选用15只处在非发情季节的3.5岁的甘肃高山细毛羊,注射INH表位多肽疫苗与GnIH表位多肽疫苗分别为表位多肽疫苗A组和表位多肽疫苗B组,对照组注射等量生理盐水。采血后进行免疫,每隔7 d免疫和采血,同时在发情后每隔15 min采集一次血液,分离血清,用ELISA试剂盒检测抗体水平及FSH和LH激素变化。结果表明,表位多肽疫苗A组和表位多肽疫苗B组在初次免疫后都产生了相应的抗体,且表位多肽疫苗B组较表位多肽疫苗A组产生的抗体浓度高,75 、90、105 min时,表位多肽疫苗B组相对表位多肽疫苗A组显著促进了FSH的分泌水平(P<0.05)。在45~105 min时,表位多肽疫苗B组相对表位多肽疫苗A组显著促进了LH的分泌水平(P<0.05),且在90到105 min时表位多肽疫苗A组和表位多肽疫苗B组血清中FSH和LH的水平均显著高于对照组(P<0.05)。本试验结果表明,INH表位多肽疫苗和GnIH表位多肽疫苗主动免疫促进了甘肃高山细毛羊的FSH、LH的分泌,GnIH表位多肽疫苗在甘肃高山细毛羊上具有更好的免疫作用,本研究为该表位多肽疫苗在绵羊上的运用奠定了基础。     

Effects of Active Immunization with GnIH and INH Epitope Peptide Vaccine on Reproductive Hormones of Gansu Alpine Fine-wool Sheep

This study aimed to detect the reproductive hormones levels of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) in Gansu Alpine Fine-wool sheep by active immunization of two synthesized epitope peptide vaccines A and B which were combined inhibit hormone (INH) and gonadotropin inhibit hormone (GnIH).15 Gansu Alpine Fine-wool sheep were selected which were 3.5 year old and lived in anoestrus season, 3 groups each had 5 sheep, GnIH epitope peptide vaccine and INH epitope peptide vaccine were named epitope peptide vaccine A and B groups, while blank group was injected with saline.The blood was collected before immunization and immuned, and bloods were collected once every 7 days, meanwhile collected blood every 15 min after estrus.The serum was used to detect antibody, FSH and LH levels by ELISA Kits.The results showed that the epitope peptide vaccine A and B groups produced the corresponding antibodies after the initial immunization, and epitope peptide vaccine B group produced more antibodies than epitope peptide vaccine A group.Epitope peptide vaccine B group promoted the FSH secretion levels was significantly higher than epitope peptide vaccine A group in 75, 90 and 105 min (P<0.05);In 45 to 105 minutes, the LH secretion levels of epitope peptide vaccine B group was significantly higher than epitope peptide vaccine A group (P<0.05), while the LH and FSH levels in epitope peptide vaccine A and B groups were significantly higher than control group (P<0.05).This study indicated that the epitope peptide vaccine A and B groups could promote the FSH and LH secretion levels through active immunity in Gansu Alpine Fine-wool sheep and had a good immune function.This study laid a foundation for the application of epitope peptide vaccine on sheep.     

Ghrelin-stimulation test in the diagnosis of canine pituitary dwarfism

This study investigated whether ghrelin, a potent releaser of growth hormone (GH) secretion, is a valuable tool in the diagnosis of canine pituitary dwarfism. The effect of intravenous administration of ghrelin on the release of GH and other adenohypophyseal hormones was investigated in German shepherd dogs with congenital combined pituitary hormone deficiency and in healthy Beagles. Analysis of the maximal increment (i.e. difference between pre- and maximal post-ghrelin plasma hormone concentration) indicated that the GH response was significantly lower in the dwarf dogs compared with the healthy dogs. In none of the pituitary dwarfs, the ghrelin-induced plasma GH concentration exceeded 5 microg/l at any time. However, this was also true for 3 healthy dogs. In all dogs, ghrelin administration did not affect the plasma concentrations of ACTH, cortisol, TSH, LH and PRL . Thus, while a ghrelin-induced plasma GH concentration above 5 microg/l excludes GH deficiency, false-negative results may occur.     

Pituitary effects of steroid hormones on secretion of follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone

Steroid hormones have a profound influence on the secretion of the gonadotropins, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). These effects can occur as a result of steroid hormones modifying the secretion of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) from the hypothalamus, or a direct effect of steroid hormones on gonadotropin secreting cells in the anterior pituitary gland. With respect to the latter, we have shown that estradiol increases pituitary sensitivity to GnRH by stimulating an increase in expression of the gene encoding the GnRH receptor. Since an estrogen response element (ERE) has not been identified in the GnRH receptor gene, this effect appears to be mediated by estradiol stimulating production of a yet to be identified factor that in turn enhances expression of the GnRH receptor gene. However, the importance of estradiol for enhancing pituitary sensitivity to GnRH during the periovulatory period is questioned because an increase in mRNA for the GnRH receptor precedes the pre-ovulatory rise in circulating concentrations of estradiol. In fact, it appears that the enhanced pituitary sensitivity during the periovulatory period may occur as a result of a decrease in concentrations of progesterone rather than due to an increase in concentrations of estradiol. Estradiol also is capable of altering secretion of FSH and LH in the absence of GnRH. In a recent study utilizing cultured pituitary cells from anestrous ewes, we demonstrated that estradiol induced a dose-dependent increase in secretion of LH, but resulted in a dose-dependent decrease in the secretion of FSH. We hypothesized that the discordant effects on secretion of LH and FSH might arise from estradiol altering the production of some of the intrapituitary factors involved in synthesis and secretion of FSH. To examine this hypothesis, we measured amounts of mRNA for activin B (a factor known to stimulate synthesis of FSH) and follistatin (an activin-binding protein). We found no change in the mRNA for follistatin after treatment of pituitary cells with estradiol, but noted a decrease in the amount of mRNA for activin B. Thus, the inhibitory effect of estradiol on secretion of FSH appears to be mediated by its ability to suppress the expression of the gene encoding activin.     

Effects of Body Condition and Protein Supplementation on LH Secretion and Luteal Function in Sheep

In ruminants, nutrition is one of the exogenous inputs affecting reproductive function at different levels of the hypothalamic-hypophyseal-gonadal axis. However, the exact mechanisms or even the identification of the signalling metabolic compounds by which nutrition affects reproductive function still need further clarification. The role of static body condition (BC) and its interaction with a short-term protein supplementation (PL), on secretion of metabolic hormones [growth hormone (GH), insulin and insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1)], as well as on secretion of LH and progesterone (P4) was evaluated in sheep. Twenty-four Rambouillet ewes divided into two groups, with lower (LBC) and higher body condition (HBC), were randomly assigned within BC to one of two PL levels: low (LPL, 24% of crude protein; 14 g/animal/day), and high (HPL, 44% of crude protein; 30 g/animal/day). The secretion of GH, insulin, IGF-1 and LH was evaluated on day 10 of the oestrous cycle; appearance and timing of oestrous behaviour were previously detected using rams. Progesterone secretion was evaluated on day 13 of the same cycle. No differences were found (p > 0.05) between PL groups on serum GH concentrations during the sampling period (overall mean of 4.0 +/- 0.3 ng/ml), but a trend for lower values in HBC sheep was found (3.6 +/- 0.4 vs 4.4 +/- 0.4 ng/ml, p = 0.06). A BC effect was observed (p < 0.05) on serum IGF-1 level, with higher values in HBC sheep (p < 0.05). Neither BC nor PL affected (p > 0.05) secretion of LH and the number of corpora lutea, nor serum P4 and insulin concentrations. Results indicate a predominance of the static component of nutrition on sheep metabolic hormone responses, GH and IGF-1, with no effect of short-term PL on secretion of pituitary and ovarian hormones as well as luteal number and activity.     

Fractionation and assay of chicken pituitary hormones

The glycoprotein hormones of the chicken pituitary gland, follicle‐stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinising hormone (LH) and thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), have been fractionated and partially purified. Fractions were assayed for gonadotrophins using the testicular uptake of ³²P in 1‐d‐old chicks and for thyro‐trophin by chick thyroidal ³²P uptake.     

维生素、矿物质与能量蛋白质水平对浙东白鹅母鹅繁殖性能、血液生殖激素浓度及生殖轴相关基因mRNA相对表达量的影响

本试验通过在饲粮中添加维生素与矿物质、调整饲粮能量蛋白质水平,旨在研究其对浙东白鹅母鹅繁殖性能、血液生殖激素浓度和生殖轴相关基因mRNA相对表达量的影响.选择138只月龄相近的浙东白鹅种母鹅,按体重相近原则分为3组,分别饲喂不同的饲粮,试验期150 d,测定繁殖性能(平均产蛋数、平均蛋重、受精率和孵化率)、血液生殖激素[卵泡刺激素(FSH)、促黄体生成素(LH)、孕酮(P4)、雌二醇(E2)、催乳素(PRL)]浓度和生殖轴相关基因[促性腺激素释放激素(GnRH)、卵泡刺激素-β(FSHβ)、雌激素受体1(ESR1)、雌激素受体2(ESR2)、卵泡刺激素受体(FSHR)、催乳素(PRL)、催乳素受体(PRLR)] mRNA相对表达量的变化.结果表明:1)添加维生素与矿物质可显著提高浙东白鹅母鹅第1产蛋周期平均蛋重和受精率(P＜0.05);提高第2产蛋周期内血液FSH和P4的浓度,降低LH浓度,改变E2、P4和PRL浓度波动(P＜0.05);下调下丘脑PRLR、垂体PRL和卵巢PRLR基因的mRNA相对表达量(P＜0.05),上调卵巢ESR2基因的mRNA相对表达量(P＜0.05).2)调整饲粮能量蛋白质水平可显著提高浙东白鹅母鹅第2产蛋周期平均蛋重(P＜0.05);提高浙东白鹅第2产蛋周期内血液LH浓度,降低FSH浓度,改变E2和P4浓度波动(P＜0.05);上调下丘脑GnRH、垂体PRL和PRLR基因的mRNA相对表达量(P＜0.05),下调卵巢FSHR基因的mRNA相对表达量(P＜0.05).由此得出,添加维生素与矿物质、调整饲粮能量蛋白质水平可通过影响产蛋周期内部分血液生殖激素浓度和波动,局部调节生殖轴相关基因的mRNA相对表达量,改善浙东白鹅母鹅的繁殖性能.     

Effects of Oxytropis glabra DC Poisoning on the Reproductive Organs in Hetian Sheep Ewes

The study was aimed to research the effects of Oxytropis glabra DC (O.glabra DC) poisoning on reproductive organs coefficent, reproductive performance and related gene expression in Hetian sheep ewes. The sera, hypothalamus, pituitary and ovary of Hetian sheep ewes cases poisoning of O. glabra DC were collected, the organ exponent and contents of GnRH, FSH, LH, E₂ and P₄ in serum were measured, then the mRNA expression of reproductive genes were measured. The result demonstrated that the index of hypothalamus, pituitary and ovary were extremely significantly higher than normal sheep (P < 0.01),the follicle number on the surface of the ovaries in poisoning groups were significantly lower than normal sheep (P < 0.05). The result of hematoxylin-eosin staining showed that the nuclear of neuronal cells in hypothalamus were pyknosis and hyperchromatic; The nuclear of cells in pituitary deformation and hyperchromatic, cytoplasm decreased; The primary oocyte in ovary dissolved, disappeared, interstitial blood vessel expanded. The content of GnRH, FSH, LH, E₂ and P₄ in serum in poisoned Hetian sheep ewes were extremely significantly lower than normal sheep (P < 0.01). The mRNA expression levels of Kiss-1, GPR54, ERα in hypothalamus, GnRHR in pituitary and FSHR and LHR in ovary were extremely significantly lower than normal sheep (P < 0.01). The result showed that O. glabra DC poisoning could affect Hetian sheep ewes reproductive system by affecting microstructure and ultrastructure of hypothalamus-pituitary-ovarian axis.     

小花棘豆中毒对和田羊母羊繁殖器官的影响

试验旨在探讨小花棘豆（Oxytropis glabra DC）中毒对和田羊母羊繁殖器官指数、性激素水平和相关基因mRNA表达量的影响。以小花棘豆中毒和田羊母羊为研究对象,采集血清后屠宰,采集试验羊的丘脑、垂体和卵巢组织,测定其脏器系数,检测血清中促性腺激素释放激素（GnRH）、促卵泡素（FSH）、促黄体素（LH）、雌二醇（E₂）和孕酮（P₄）含量的变化,并检测各组织中相关繁殖基因的表达。结果显示,小花棘豆中毒和田羊母羊丘脑、垂体和卵巢指数均极显著升高（P < 0.01）,且卵巢表面卵泡数显著下降（P < 0.05）,HE染色表明丘脑神经元细胞固缩、浓染;垂体中细胞核变形、浓染,胞浆减少;卵巢中初级卵母细胞溶解、消失,间质血管扩张。小花棘豆中毒和田羊母羊血清中GnRH、FSH、LH、E₂和P₄含量均极显著下降（P < 0.01）,丘脑中Kiss-1、GPR54、ERα mRNA,垂体中GnRHR mRNA和卵巢中FSHR、LHR mRNA表达量均极显著下降（P < 0.01）。结果表明,小花棘豆毒性成分可通过丘脑-垂体-性腺轴影响和田羊母羊的生殖系统。     

Physiology of ghrelin and related peptides

Growth hormone (GH) released from pituitary under direct control of hypothalamic releasing (i.e., GHRH) and inhibiting (i.e., sst or SRIF) hormones is an anabolic hormone that regulates metabolism of proteins, fats, sugars and minerals in mammals. Cyril Bowers' discovery of GH-releasing peptide (GHRP-6) was followed by a search for synthetic peptide and nonpeptide GH-secretagogues (GHSs) that stimulate GH release, as well as a receptor(s) unique from GHRH receptor. GHRH and GHSs operate through distinct G protein-coupled receptors to release GH. Signal transduction pathways activated by GHS increase intracellular Ca2+ concentration in somatotrophs, whereas GHRH increases cAMP. Isolation and characterization of ghrelin, the natural ligand for GHS receptor, has opened a new era of understanding to physiology of anabolism, feeding behavior, and nutritional homeostasis for GH secretion and gastrointestinal motility through gut-brain interactions. Other peptide hormones (i.e., motilin, TRH, PACAP, GnRH, leptin, FMRF amide, galanin, NPY, NPW) from gut, brain and other tissues also play a role in modulating GH secretion in livestock and lower vertebrate species. Physiological processes, such as neurotransmission, and secretion of hormones or enzymes, require fusion of secretory vesicles at the cell plasma membrane and expulsion of vesicular contents. This process for GH release from porcine somatotrophs was revealed by atomic force microscopy (AFM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and immunohistochemical distribution of the cells in pituitary during stages of development.