Dietary acrylamide exposure estimates for the United Kingdom and Ireland: comparison between semiprobabilistic and probabilistic exposure models

Since the discovery of acrylamide in foods, there have been many calculations of dietary exposure. Total diet studies have been commonly used to estimate consumer exposure of acrylamide; however, these often fall short in evaluating true exposure levels because of limitations in small occurrence data sets. Dietary exposure to acrylamide can also be estimated by use of modeling packages. The U.K. Food Standards Agency and the Food Safety Authority of Ireland have prepared estimates for dietary acrylamide exposure using semiprobabilistic and probabilistic modeling. Occurrence data were obtained from the European Union acrylamide monitoring database, whereas consumption data were obtained from the relevant U.K. and Irish National Diet and Nutrition Surveys. The mean adult U.K. consumer exposure was estimated as 0.61 microg/kg of body weight (bw)/day and high-level adult consumer exposure (P97.5) as 1.29 microg/kg of bw/day. The mean adult Irish consumer exposure was estimated as 0.59 microg/kg of bw/day and the high-level adult consumer exposure (P97.5) as 1.75 microg/kg of bw/day. Owing to the wide range of acrylamide levels in foods, semiprobabilistic modeling does not always provide an accurate picture of dietary exposure levels and patterns. Therefore, a comparison of semiprobabilistic assessments to probabilistic assessments of U.K. and Irish dietary exposure estimates of certain food groups is provided.     

Acrylamide intake through diet and human cancer risk

More than one-third of the calories consumed by U.S. and European populations contain acrylamide, a substance classified as a "probable human carcinogen" based on laboratory data. Thus, it is a public health concern to evaluate whether intake of acrylamide at levels found in the food supply is an important cancer risk factor. Mean dietary intake of acrylamide in adults averages 0.5 microg/kg of body weight per day, whereas intake is higher among children. Several epidemiological studies examining the relationship between dietary intake of acrylamide and cancers of the colon, rectum, kidney, bladder, and breast have been undertaken. These studies found no association between intake of specific foods containing acrylamide and risk of these cancers. Moreover, there was no relationship between estimated acrylamide intake in the diet and cancer risk. Results of this research are compared with other epidemiological studies, and the findings are examined in the context of data from animal models. The importance of epidemiological studies to establish the public health risk associated with acrylamide in food is discussed, as are the limitations and future directions of such studies.     

Mediterranean diet and cancer

OBJECTIVE: To analyse the role of various aspects of the Mediterranean diet in several common epithelial cancers, including digestive and selected non-digestive tract neoplasms. DESIGN: Systematic analysis of data from a series of case-control studies. SETTING: Northern Italy, between 1983 and 1998. SUBJECTS: Over 12,000 cases of 20 cancer sites and 10,000 controls. RESULTS: For most epithelial cancers, the risk decreased with increasing vegetable and fruit consumption, with relative risk (RR) between 0.3 and 0.7 for the highest versus the lowest tertile. For digestive tract cancers, population-attributable risks for low intake of vegetables and fruit ranged between 15 and 40%. A protective effect was observed also for breast, female genital tract, urinary tract and a few other epithelial neoplasms. A number of antioxidants and other micronutrients showed an inverse relationship with cancer risk, but the main components responsible for the favourable effect of a diet rich in vegetables and fruit remain undefined. Fish tended to be another favourable diet indicator. In contrast, subjects reporting frequent red meat intake showed RRs above unity for several common neoplasms. Intake of whole-grain foods was related to a reduced risk of several types of cancer, particularly of the upper digestive tract. This may be due to a favourable role of fibre, but the issue is still open to discussion. In contrast, refined grain intake and, consequently, glycaemic load and glycaemic index were associated with increased risk of different types of cancer including, among others, breast and colorectal. CONCLUSIONS: A low-risk diet for cancer in the Mediterranean would imply increasing the consumption of fruit and vegetables, as well as avoiding increasing the intakes of meat and refined carbohydrates. Further, olive oil and other unsaturated fats, which are also typical aspects of the Mediterranean diet, should be preferred to saturated ones.     

Lead dietary intake in a Spanish population (Canary Islands)

For most people diet is the main route of exposure to trace metals, so information about dietary intake is also important to assess risks to human health for these elements. The purpose of this study was to determine the levels of Pb in the foods and drinks of highest consumption in the authors' our community to estimate daily intakes of Pb for each of the seven Canary Islands. Four hundred and twenty samples were analyzed using GFAAS. The total Pb intake of the Canarian population is 72.8 microg/day, 29.12% (for a person of 70 kg body weight) of the provisional tolerable weekly intake limit of 25 microg/kg fixed by the FAO/WHO. The island that presents the highest lead intake is La Gomera, followed by Lanzarote, Tenerife, and Gran Canaria islands. These four islands present a lead dietary intake over the mean Pb intake for the whole archipelago. The islands with lower Pb intakes are La Palma and Fuerteventura, with intakes under 70 microg/day. These results have also been compared with the values found for other national and international communities.     

Both food habit change in the past and obesity status may influence the association between dietary factors and postmenopausal breast cancer

OBJECTIVE: Valid dietary data are essential when trying to identify whether or not one or more dietary exposures are responsible for disease. We examined diet composition in women who reported dietary change in the past compared with non-changers, and how the associations between dietary factors and postmenopausal breast cancer are influenced by dietary change, obesity status and misreporting of energy. DESIGN: A population-based prospective cohort study. Data were obtained by a diet history method, anthropometrical measurements and an extensive lifestyle questionnaire including items on past food habit change. SETTING: The Malm? Diet and Cancer (MDC) study, conducted in Malm?, Sweden. SUBJECTS: A subsample of 12,781 women from the MDC cohort recruited from 1991 to 1996. A total of 428 postmenopausal women were diagnosed with incident breast cancer, during 9.2 years of follow-up. RESULTS: Past food habit changers reported healthier food habits and lower energy intake compared with non-changers, a finding that raises issues regarding possible reporting biases. When excluding diet changers, the trend of increased breast cancer risk across omega-6 fatty acid quintiles was stronger, and a tendency of decreased risk emerged for 'fruit, berries and vegetables'. When excluding individuals with non-adequate reports of energy intake, risk estimates were similar to that of the whole sample. In women with body mass index < 27 kg m- 2, significant trends of increased breast cancer risk were seen for total fat and omega-6 fatty acids, and of decreased risk for 'fruit, berries and vegetables'. CONCLUSIONS: This study indicates that both obesity and self-reported past food habit change may be important confounders of diet-breast cancer relationships. The study demonstrates that sensitivity analysis, through stratification, may facilitate interpretation of risk relationships and study results.     

Autoclave sterilization produces acrylamide in rodent diets: implications for toxicity testing

Acrylamide (AA) is a neurotoxic and carcinogenic contaminant that is formed during the cooking of starchy foods. Assessment of human risks from toxicants is routinely performed using laboratory rodents, and such testing requires careful control of unintended exposures, particularly through the diet. This study describes an analytical method based on liquid chromatography with electrospray tandem mass spectrometry that was used to measure endogenous AA in rodent diets and to survey a number of commercial products for contamination. Method sensitivity permitted accurate quantification of endogenous levels of AA in raw diets below 20 ppb. Autoclaving a standard rodent diet (NIH-31) increased the AA content 14-fold, from 17 to 240 ppb. A nutritionally equivalent diet that was sterilized by irradiation was found to contain approximately 10 ppb of AA (NIH-31IR). A toxicokinetic study of AA and its epoxide metabolite, glycidamide, was performed by switching mice from NIH-31IR to the autoclaved diet for a 30 min feeding period (average AA dose administered was 4.5 microg/kg of body weight). The concentrations of AA and glycidamide were measured in serum collected at various times. The elimination half-lives and the areas under the respective concentration-time curves were similar for AA and glycidamide. Mice maintained on autoclaved NIH-31 diet, but otherwise untreated, showed elevated steady state levels of a glycidamide-derived DNA adduct in liver relative to mice maintained on the irradiated diet. This study demonstrates that a heat sterilization procedure used in laboratory animal husbandry (i.e., autoclaving) can lead to the formation of significant levels of AA in basal diets used for toxicity testing. AA in rodent diets is bioavailable, is distributed to tissues, and is metabolically activated to a genotoxic metabolite, which produces quantifiable cumulative DNA damage. Although the contribution of endogenous AA to the incidence of tumors in multiple organs of rodents otherwise untreated in chronic carcinogenicity bioassays (i.e., control groups) is not known, the reduction of endogenous AA through the use of a suitable irradiated diet was deemed to be critical for ongoing studies of AA carcinogenicity and neurotoxicity.     

Frequency of soy food consumption and serum isoflavone concentrations among Chinese women in Shanghai

OBJECTIVE: The food-frequency questionnaire (FFQ) can be an efficient tool to evaluate dietary intake in large, population-based studies, especially for specific foods. The objective of this study was to validate the assessment of soy and isoflavone (daidzein and genistein) intakes, measured by an FFQ, by comparing intakes with serum isoflavone concentrations. DESIGN AND SETTING: Soy and isoflavone intakes and serum isoflavone concentrations were determined as part of a case-control study of dietary factors and risks of benign breast disease and breast cancer. The FFQ, administered during an in-person interview, included six soy-specific line items. Blood was drawn within one week of FFQ completion. SUBJECTS: In total, 1823 women living in Shanghai, People's Republic of China. RESULTS: In this population, soybean milk, fresh bean curd and other bean foods were eaten once per week, and fermented bean curd, fried bean curd puff and soybeans were eaten less than once per week. A significant linear trend (P<0.01) in serum isoflavone concentrations across increasing categories of soy and isoflavone intakes was observed, indicating that soy and isoflavone intakes, measured by the FFQ, well distinguished serum isoflavone concentrations. Linear trends were also observed in both case and control groups in stratified analyses, suggesting little differential bias by case-control status. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that the FFQ provides a useful marker of soy food consumption and isoflavone exposure in this population.     

Effects of meat consumption and vegetarian diet on risk of wrist fracture over 25 years in a cohort of peri- and postmenopausal women

BACKGROUND: Evidence suggesting that a diet high in fruits and vegetables may be beneficial to bone health has sparked interest in the potential benefit of a vegetarian diet. However, other studies have raised a question regarding the adequacy of protein in such a diet. OBJECTIVE: The aim of the present study was to take a whole foods approach in examining the effects of foods high in protein on the risk of wrist fracture (WF) in a cohort with a significant proportion consuming a meat-free diet. DESIGN: A cohort study of women who completed two lifestyle surveys 25 years apart. SUBJECTS: One thousand eight hundred and sixty-five peri- and postmenopausal women at the time of the first survey. RESULTS: There was a significant interaction between meat consumption and foods high in vegetable protein. Among vegetarians, those who consumed the least vegetable protein intake were at highest risk for fracture. However, increasing levels of plant-based high-protein foods decreased WF risk, with a 68% reduction in risk (hazard ratio (HR) = 0.32, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.13-0.79) in the highest intake group. Among those with lowest vegetable protein consumption, increasing meat intake decreased the risk of WF, with the highest consumption decreasing risk by 80% (HR = 0.20, 95% CI 0.06-0.66). CONCLUSIONS: The finding that higher consumption frequencies of foods rich in protein were associated with reduced WF supports the importance of adequate protein for bone health. The similarity in risk reduction by vegetable protein foods compared with meat intake suggests that adequate protein intake is attainable in a vegetarian diet.     

蔬菜中氯氰菊酯残留的风险评估研究

目前使用的绝大多数农药为合成农药,具有急性毒性特征,已开展的慢性评估不能完全符合实际需要,慢性评估结果容易出现过低估计风险,具有急性毒性特征的农药残留必须开展急性评估。为了推进急性评估研究,为我国食品安全监管和残留限量的制定提供技术支持,在WHO原则指导下、基于JMPR建议的方法,开展了蔬菜中氯氰菊酯残留的急性和慢性点评估技术研究。结果显示,济南、青岛和寿光三地市售的西红柿、菜椒、菜豆、茄子、豇豆和芹菜中氯氰菊酯残留摄入是安全的;虽然白菜出现了超标的个例,但99.98%的氯氰菊酯残留摄入不存在危害健康的摄入风险;即使考虑50%的总体误差以及蔬菜占总食物摄入量的比例,至少99.96%的残留摄入不存在危害健康的摄入风险。研究表明,摄入频率高的7类蔬菜中氯氰菊酯残留污染较轻,对消费者（包括孕妇、婴儿和儿童）身体健康危害很小。     

Consumption of 'extra' foods (energy-dense, nutrient-poor) among children aged 16-24 months from western Sydney, Australia

OBJECTIVE: This study evaluates the contribution of energy-dense, nutrient-poor 'extra' foods to the diets of 16-24-month-old children from western Sydney, Australia. DESIGN: An analysis of cross-sectional data collected on participants in the Childhood Asthma Prevention Study (CAPS), a randomised trial investigating the primary prevention of asthma from birth to 5 years. We collected 3-day weighed food records, calculated nutrient intakes, classified recorded foods into major food groups, and further classified foods as either 'core' or 'extras' according to the Australian Guide to Healthy Eating. SETTING: Pregnant women, whose unborn child was at risk of developing asthma because of a family history, were recruited from all six hospitals in western Sydney, Australia. Data for this study were collected in clinic visits and at participants' homes at the 18-month assessment. PARTICIPANTS: Four hundred and twenty-nine children participating in the CAPS study; 80% of the total cohort. RESULTS: The mean consumption of 'extra' foods was approximately 150 g day(-1) and contributed 25-30% of the total energy, fat, carbohydrate and sodium to the diets of the study children. 'Extra' foods also contributed around 20% of fibre, 10% of protein and zinc, and about 5% of calcium. Children in the highest quintile of 'extra' foods intake had a slightly higher but not significantly different intake of energy from those in the lowest quintile. However, significant differences were evident for the percentage of energy provided by carbohydrate and sugars (higher) and protein and saturated fat (lower). The intake of most micronutrients was also significantly lower among children in the highest quintile of consumption. The intake of 'extra' foods was inversely associated with the intake of core foods. CONCLUSIONS: The high percentage of energy contributed by 'extra' foods and their negative association with nutrient density emphasise the need for dietary guidance for parents of children aged 1-2 years. These preliminary data on commonly consumed 'extra' foods and portion sizes may inform age-specific dietary assessment methods.     

Dietary fiber content and associated antioxidant compounds in Roselle flower (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.) beverage

The beverage of Hibiscus sabdariffa flowers is widely consumed in Mexico. Polyphenols contained in plant foods are frequently associated with dietary fiber. The aim of this work is to quantify the dietary fiber, associated polyphenols, and antioxidant capacity of the Roselle flower and the beverage traditionally prepared from it and its contribution to the Mexican diet. Roselle flower contained dietary fiber as the largest component (33.9%) and was rich in phenolic compounds (6.13%). Soluble dietary fiber was 0.66 g/L in beverage, and 66% of total extractable polyphenols contained in Roselle flower passed to the beverage and showed an antioxidant capacity of 335 micromoL trolox equivalents/100 mL beverage measured by ABTS. These data suggest that Roselle flower beverage intake in the Mexican diet may contribute around 166 and 165 mg/per serving to the intake of dietary fiber and polyphenols, respectively. The health benefits from consumption of Hibiscus beverage could be of considerable benefit to the whole population.     

Dietary intake and development of a quantitative food-frequency questionnaire for the Barbados National Cancer Study

OBJECTIVE: To develop a quantitative food-frequency questionnaire (QFFQ) for the Barbados National Cancer Study (BNCS) that will permit examination of associations of diet with breast and prostate cancer. DESIGN: Population intake data from the year 2000 Barbados Food Consumption and Anthropometric Surveys (BFCAS 2000) were used to derive a list of foods consumed by the population. A 192-item draft QFFQ was developed from this list. SETTING: Barbados, West Indies provides an ideal environment to understand cancer risk in African-origin populations, with high relevance to African-Americans. The BNCS is a population-based case-control study examining risk factors for breast and prostate cancer in such populations. SUBJECTS: A total of 1600 persons, 18 years and older, completed a 24-hour recall in the BFCAS 2000. Fifty of 63 randomly selected residents (79% response rate) gave additional updated information on foods consumed. RESULTS: The 50 participants provided a one-time 24-hour recall and completed the draft QFFQ. The final instrument contains 148 items: breads, cakes, cereals = 17; rice, pastas, noodles = 8; dairy = 10; meat, fish, poultry = 42; fruit = 16; vegetables = 26; soft drinks = 14; alcoholic beverages = 5; others = 10. Additional questions include supplement use and food preparation methods such as grilling. CONCLUSION: The final instrument is concise, complete and the most up-to-date for assessing the food and nutrient intake of African-origin Barbadians and the associations with breast and prostate cancer.     

Dietary iron intake and risk of non-fatal acute myocardial infarction

OBJECTIVE: The relation between several measures of body iron and atherosclerotic disease, particularly acute myocardial infarction (AMI), is debated. This is of specific interest since iron is frequently included in supplementation and fortification of foods. We assessed the relation between dietary iron intake and the risk of non-fatal AMI. DESIGN: Case-control study. The information was collected by interviewers using a food-frequency questionnaire tested for validity and reproducibility. Adjusted odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were obtained by multiple unconditional logistic regression models, including terms for energy and alcohol intake, as well as for sociodemographic factors, tobacco and other major recognised risk factors for AMI. SETTING: Milan, Italy, between 1995 and 1999. SUBJECTS: Cases were 507 patients, below age 79 years, with a first episode of non-fatal AMI, and controls were 478 patients admitted to hospital for a wide spectrum of acute conditions unrelated to known or potential AMI risk factors. RESULTS: Compared with patients in the lowest tertile of total iron intake, the OR was 0.48 (95% CI 0.29-0.82) for those in the highest tertile. The corresponding value for haem iron was 0.71 (95% CI 0.48-1.06), for non-haem, non-alcohol iron was 0.80 (95% CI 0.51-1.24) and for iron derived from alcoholic beverages was 0.60 (95% CI 0.40-0.90). Sex-specific OR for total iron intake were not heterogeneous. CONCLUSIONS: In this Italian population dietary iron intake was inversely related to AMI risk. This inverse association may depend on other nutrients present in the major sources of iron in the Italian diet.     

Human exposure to polychlorinated diphenyl ethers through the diet in Catalonia, Spain

Although polychlorinated diphenyl ethers (PCDEs) are recognized environmental pollutants, information concerning human exposure to these organic substances is very scarce. For the present study the concentrations of PCDEs in a number of foodstuffs acquired in Catalonia, Spain, were determined. The dietary intake of PCDEs was estimated for various age groups of the general population living in this Spanish region. With the exception of fish and shellfish, PCDE concentrations were under the limit of detection in the 10 remaining food groups analyzed. For an adult (20-65 years old) male of 70 kg average body weight, the estimated total dietary intake of PCDEs was 41 ng/day. It was assumed that if a PCDE congener was below the detection limit, the concentration was equal to half of the limit of detection. The highest exposure to PCDEs through the diet corresponded to the group aged 51-65 years, whereas the lowest intake corresponded to the youngest group (4-9 years). With the exception of the group aged >65 years, PCDE intake was always higher in males than in females. The results of this study should be of interest for future assessments of time trends in human exposure to PCDEs through the diet.     

Alcohol and dietary fibre intakes affect circulating sex hormones among premenopausal women

BACKGROUND: The association of alcohol and fibre intake with breast cancer may be mediated by circulating sex hormone levels, which are predictors of breast cancer risk. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the relationship of alcohol and dietary fibre intake with circulating sex hormone levels among premenopausal women. METHODS: A total of 205 premenopausal women completed a validated food-frequency questionnaire at baseline and after 2 years; blood samples taken at the same time were analysed for circulating sex hormone concentrations, including oestrone (E1), oestradiol (E2), free E2, progesterone, androstenedione and sex hormone-binding globulin, by radioimmunoassay. We used mixed models to estimate least-square means of sex hormone concentrations for alcohol intake categories and quartiles of dietary intake. RESULTS: After adjustment for covariates, alcohol consumption was moderately associated with higher circulating oestrogen levels; those who consumed more than one drink per day had 20% higher E2 (Ptrend=0.07) levels than non-drinkers. In contrast, higher dietary fibre intake was associated with lower serum levels of androstenedione (-8% between the lowest and highest quartiles of intake, Ptrend=0.06), but not oestrogens. Similarly, consumption of fruits (-12%, Ptrend=0.03), vegetables (-9%, Ptrend=0.15) and whole grains (-7%, Ptrend=0.07) showed inverse associations with androstenedione levels. CONCLUSIONS: The consistency of the observed differences in sex hormone levels associated with alcohol and fibre-rich foods indicates that these nutritional factors may affect sex hormone concentrations and play a role in breast cancer aetiology and prevention.     

Influence of soil properties on Ni accumulation in food crops and corresponding dietary health risk with a typical Chinese diet

Nickel (Ni), an essential micronutrient, is toxic to plants and animals at elevated levels. Fewer data are available on the dynamics of Ni than for trace metals such as Cu and Zn. Dietary intake is the major source of Ni, but almost no information is available on dietary intake for Asian populations whose diet contains much less animal products and processed foods than in Western countries. In south‐eastern China, most food is grown on peri‐urban agricultural land and thus, food crops from these areas should be the major source of dietary Ni. A large‐scale survey of Ni in soils and edible crops, including 515 sites and 24 crop species from 10 crop groups, was conducted in Fujian Province, SE China, to assess Ni intake for a typical SE Asian diet. Correlation, principal component analysis (PCA) and data mining were used to identify soil and plant factors that determine Ni accumulation in crops. Both soil Ni content and plant species contributed to Ni accumulation. Crop Ni (Ni_crop) was positively correlated with soil Ni DTPA‐extractible (diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid) (Ni_DTPA) for many crops. PCA did not identify strong relations between soil‐to‐crop transfer factors and any soil properties. Stepwise linear correlations found positive correlations between Ni_crop and Ni_DTPA; however, relationships between Ni_crop and both silt content and pH varied between crops. Dietary intake of foods containing mean Ni content could lead to health risks, especially for children. It was concluded that sandy soils, rich in organic matter with a large Ni content, are unsuitable for the production of rice and legumes.     

Phytoestrogen content of foods of animal origin: dairy products, eggs, meat, fish, and seafood

Dietary phytoestrogens may be involved in the occurrence of chronic diseases. Reliable information on the phytoestrogen content in foods is required to assess dietary exposure and disease risk in epidemiological studies. However, existing analyses have focused on only one class of these compounds in plant-based foods, and there is only little information on foods of animal origin, leading to an underestimation of intake. This is the first comprehensive study of phytoestrogen content in animal food. We have determined the phytoestrogen content (isoflavones: biochanin A, daidzein, formononetin, genistein, and glycitein; lignans: secoisolariciresinol and matairesinol; coumestrol; equol; enterolactone; and enterodiol) in 115 foods of animal origin (including milk and milk-products, eggs, meat, fish, and seafood) and vegetarian substitutes using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) with (13)C-labeled internal standards. Phytoestrogens were detected in all foods analyzed; the average content was 20 microg/100 g of wet weight (isoflavones, 6 microg/100 g; lignans, 6 microg/100 g; equol, 3 microg/100 g; and enterolignans, 6 microg/100 g). In infant soy formula, 19 221 microg/100 g phytoestrogens were detected (compared to 59 microg/100 g in non-soy formula). Our study shows that all foods analyzed contained phytoestrogens and most foods (except for fish, seafood, and butter) contained mammalian phytoestrogens (enterolignans and equol). This is the first comprehensive study of phytoestrogen content of foods of animal origin and will allow for a more accurate estimation of exposure to dietary phytoestrogens.     

Complementary foods consumed by 6-12-month-old rural infants in South Africa are inadequate in micronutrients

OBJECTIVE: To determine the nutrient composition of complementary foods consumed by 6-12-month-old South African infants. DESIGN: Nutrient intake was determined for infants who were recruited to participate in a randomised controlled trial using a single 24-hour dietary recall. SETTING/SUBJECTS: Infants aged 6-12 months (n=475) residing in The Valley of a Thousand Hills, a rural area in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. RESULTS: Energy and protein intakes from complementary foods were adequate. Infants who consumed infant products (commercially available fortified infant cereals/ready-to-eat canned baby foods/formula milk powder) had significantly higher intakes of calcium, iron, zinc, vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B6, vitamin B12 and vitamin C than infants who did not consume any infant products. For infants who consumed infant cereals (n=142), these cereals provided 51% of total iron intake. Infant cereals provided more than 25% of total intake for magnesium, thiamine, niacin and vitamin B12. For infants consuming ready-to-eat canned baby foods (n=77), these products contributed less than 15% of total intake for all the micronutrients. The nutrient density of the complementary diet was less than half the desired density for calcium, iron and zinc. Animal products were consumed by 17% of infants, 26% consumed dairy products and 18% consumed vitamin-A-rich fruit and vegetables during the 24-hour recall period. CONCLUSION: The nutrient composition of complementary foods among rural South African infants was inadequate, especially for iron, zinc and calcium. Strategies should be developed to improve the nutritional quality of their diets.     

Disentangling women's responses on complex dietary intake patterns from an Indian cross-sectional survey: a latent class analysis

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the degree of individual heterogeneity related to complex dietary behaviour and to further examine the associations of different dietary compositions with selected characteristics. DESIGN: Latent class analysis was applied to data from the recent cross-sectional National Family Health Survey that collected information on the intake frequency of selected foods. Different responses regarding intake frequency were condensed into a set of five meaningful latent clusters representing different dietary patterns and these clusters were then labelled based on the reported degree of diet mixing. SETTING: Indian states. Subjects In total, 90,180 women aged 15-49 years. RESULTS: Three clusters were predominantly non-vegetarian and two were vegetarian. A very high or high mixed-diet pattern was observed particularly in the southern and a few north-eastern states. Many women in the very high mixed-diet cluster consumed mostly non-green/leafy vegetables on a daily basis, and fruits and other non-vegetarian diet on a weekly basis. In contrast, those in the low mixed-diet cluster consumed more than three-fifths of the major vegetarian diet ingredients alone on a daily basis. The affluent group that represented the low mixed-diet cluster were primarily vegetarians and those who represented the very high mixed-diet cluster were mostly non-vegetarians. The significant interrelationships of different characteristics highlight not only socio-economic, spatial and cultural disparities related to dietary practices, but also the substantial heterogeneity in diet mixing behaviour. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study confirmed our hypothesis of heterogeneous dietary behaviour of Indian women and yielded useful policy-oriented results which might be difficult to establish otherwise.