Observations of Energetic Ions and Electrons in Saturn's Magnetosphere

The passage of Pioneer 11 by Saturn provided a detailed view of a planetary magnetosphere that is intermediate between those of Jupiter and Earth in both scale and the complexity of its dynamic processes. It appears to have at least three distinct regions: (i) an outer magnetosphere, extending from 17 to 7.5 Saturn radii, that resembles that of Earth in many important aspects; (ii) a slot region, between 7.5 and 4 Saturn radii, where a marked decrease in all protons and low-energy electrons is observed; and (iii) an inner region, extending from 4 Saturn radii to the ring edge, that features a sharp increase in the proton flux extending to energies greater than 20 million electron volts. A cutoff of both proton and electron fluxes occurred just beyond the nominal edge of the A ring.     

Pioneer 11 observations of energetic particles in the jovian magnetosphere

Knowledge of the positional distributions, absolute intensities, energy spectra, and angular distributions of energetic electrons and protons in the Jovian magnetosphere has been considerably advanced by the planetary flyby of Pioneer 11 in November-December 1974 along a quite different trajectory from that of Pioneer 10 a year earlier. (i) The previously reported magnetodisc is shown to be blunted and much more extended in latitude on the sunward side than on the dawn side. (ii) Rigid corotation of the population of protons E(p) approximately 1 million electron volts in the magnetodisc is confirmed. (iii) Angular distributions of energetic electrons E(e) > 21 million electron volts in the inner magnetosphere are shown to be compatible with the Kennel-Petschek whistler-mode instability. (iv) A diverse body of magnetospheric effects by the Jovian satellites is found. (v) Observations of energetic electrons in to a radial distance of 1.59 Jovian radii provide a fresh basis for the interpretation of decimetric radio noise emission.     

Protons and Electrons in Jupiter's Magnetic Field: Results from the University of Chicago Experiment on Pioneer 10

Fluxes of high energy electrons and protons are found to be highly concentrated near the magnetic equatorial plane from distances of ~ 30 to ~ 100 Jovian radii (R(J)). The 10-hour period of planetary rotation is observed as an intensity variation, which indicates that the equatorial zone of high particle fluxes is inclined with respect to the rotation axis of the planet. At radial distances [unknown] 20 R(J) the synchrotron-radiation-producing electrons with energies greater, similar 3 million electron volts rise steeply to a maximum intensity of ~ 5 x 10(8) electrons per square centimeter per second near the periapsis at 2.8 R(J). The flux of protons with energies greater, similar 30 million electron volts reaches a maximum intensity of ~ 4 x 10(6) protons per square centimeter per second at ~ 3.5 R(J) with the intensity decreasing inside this radial distance. Only for radial distances [unknown] 20 R(J) does the radiation behave in a manner which is similar to that at the earth. Burst of electrons with energies up to 30 million electron volts, each lasting about 2 days, were observed in interplanetary space beginning approximately 1 month before encounter. This radiation appears to have escaped from the Jovian bow shock or magnetosphere.     

Radiation belts of jupiter

Pioneer 10 counted relativistic electrons throughout the magnetosphere of Jupiter, with the greatest fluxes being inside 20 Jupiter radii. The peak flux of electrons with energy greater than 50 million electron volts was 1.3 x 10(7) per square centimeter per second at the innermost penetration of the radiation belts.     

Low-Energy Hot Plasma and Particles in Saturn's Magnetosphere

The low-energy charged particle instrument on Voyager 2 measured low-energy electrons and ions (energies greater, similar 22 and greater, similar 28 kiloelectron volts, respectively) in Saturn's magnetosphere. The magnetosphere structure and particle population were modified from those observed during the Voyager 1 encounter in November 1980 but in a manner consistent with the same global morphology. Major results include the following. (i) A region containing an extremely hot ( approximately 30 to 50 kiloelectron volts) plasma was identified and extends from the orbit of Tethys outward past the orbit of Rhea. (ii) The low-energy ion mantle found by Voyager 1 to extend approximately 7 Saturn radii inside the dayside magnetosphere was again observed on Voyager 2, but it was considerably hotter ( approximately 30 kiloelectron volts), and there was an indication of a cooler ( < 20 kiloelectron volts) ion mantle on the nightside. (iii) At energies greater, similar 200 kiloelectron volts per nucleon, H(1), H(2), and H(3) (molecular hydrogen), helium, carbon, and oxygen are important constituents in the Saturnian magnetosphere. The presence of both H(2) and H(3) suggests that the Saturnian ionosphere feeds plasma into the magnetosphere, but relative abundances of the energetic helium, carbon, and oxygen ions are consistent with a solar wind origin. (iv) Low-energy ( approximately 22 to approximately 60 kiloelectron volts) electron flux enhancements observed between the L shells of Rhea and Tethys by Voyager 2 on the dayside were absent during the Voyager 1 encounter. (v) Persistent asymmetric pitch-angle distributions of electrons of 60 to 200 kiloelectron volts occur in the outer magnetosphere in conjunction with the hot ion plasma torus. (vi) The spacecraft passed within approximately 1.1 degrees in longitude of the Tethys flux tube outbound and observed it to be empty of energetic ions and electrons; the microsignature of Enceladus inbound was also observed. (vii) There are large fluxes of electrons of approximately 1.5 million electron volts and smaller fluxes of electrons of approximately 10 million electron volts and of protons greater, similar 54 million electron volts inside the orbits of Enceladus and Mimas; all were sharply peaked perpendicular to the local magnetic field. (viii) In general, observed satellite absorption signatures were not located at positions predicted on the basis of dipole magnetic field models.     

Low-energy charged particle environment at jupiter: a first look

The low-energy charged particle instrument on Voyager was designed to measure the hot plasma (electron and ion energies greater, similar 15 and greater, similar 30 kiloelectron volts, respectively) component of the Jovian magnetosphere. Protons, heavier ions, and electrons at these energies were detected nearly a third of an astronomical unit before encounter with the planet. The hot plasma near the magnetosphere boundary is predominantly composed of protons, oxygen, and sulfur in comparable proportions and a nonthermal power-law tail; its temperature is about 3 x 10(8) K, density about 5 x 10(-3) per cubic centimeter, and energy density comparable to that of the magnetic field. The plasma appears to be corotating throughout the magnetosphere; no hot plasma outflow, as suggested by planetary wind theories, is observed. The main constituents of the energetic particle population ( greater, similar200 kiloelectron volts per nucleon) are protons, helium, oxygen, sulfur, and some sodium observed throughout the outer magnetosphere; it is probable that the sulfur, sodium, and possibly oxygen originate at 1o. Fluxes in the outbound trajectory appear to be enhancedfrom approximately 90 degrees to approximately 130 degrees longitude (System III). Consistent low-energy particle flux periodicities were not observed on the inbound trajectory; both 5-and 10-hour periodicities were observed on the outbound trajectory. Partial absorption of > 10 million electron volts electrons is observed in the vicinity of the Io flux tube.     

Saturn's Magnetosphere, Rings, and Inner Satellites

Our 31 August to 5 September 1979 observations together with those of the other Pioneer 11 investigators provide the first credible discovery of the magnetosphere of Saturn and many detailed characteristics thereof. In physical dimensions and energetic charged particle population, Saturn's magnetosphere is intermediate between those of Earth and Jupiter. In terms of planetary radii, the scale of Saturn's magnetosphere more nearly resembles that of Earth and there is much less inflation by entrapped plasma than in the case at Jupiter. The orbit of Titan lies in the outer fringes of the magnetosphere. Particle angular distributions on the inbound leg of the trajectory (sunward side) have a complex pattern but are everywhere consistent with a dipolar magnetic field approximately perpendicular to the planet's equator. On the outbound leg (dawnside) there are marked departures from this situation outside of 7 Saturn radii (Rs), suggesting an equatorial current sheet having both longitudinal and radial components. The particulate rings and inner satellites have a profound effect on the distribution of energetic particles. We find (i) clear absorption signatures of Dione and Mimas; (ii) a broad absorption region encompassing the orbital radii of Tethys and Enceladus but probably attributable, at least in part, to plasma physical effects; (iii) no evidence for Janus (1966 S 1) (S 10) at or near 2.66 Rs; (iv) a satellite of diameter greater, similar 170 kilometers at 2.534 R(s) (1979 S 2), probably the same object as that detected optically by Pioneer 11 (1979 S 1) and previously by groundbased telescopes (1966 S 2) (S 11); (v) a satellite of comparable diameter at 2.343 Rs (1979 S 5); (vi) confirmation of the F ring between 2.336 and 2.371 Rs; (vii) confirmation of the Pioneer division between 2.292 and 2.336 Rs; (viii) a suspected satellite at 2.82 Rs (1979 S 3); (ix) no clear evidence for the E ring though its influence may be obscured by stronger effects; and (x) the outer radius of the A ring at 2.292 Rs. Inside of 2.292 Rs there is a virtually total absence of magnetospheric particles and a marked reduction in cosmic-ray intensity. All distances are in units of the adopted equatorial radius of Saturn, 60,000 kilometers.     

Erratum

In the report by Simpson et al., "Saturnian trapped radiation and its absorption by satellites and rings: The first results from Pioneer 11" (25 Jan., p. 411), in Fig. 1B the right hand scale of flux (for the electrons with energies > 3.4 million electron volts) should be multiplied by a factor of 10 so that the maximum flux measured by the electron current detector is 3 x 10(6) cm(-2) sec(-1). Furthermore, in reference 9, the following citation was inadvertently omitted: M. H. Acu?a and N. F. Ness, ibid., p. 444.     

Low-Energy Charged Particles in Saturn's Magnetosphere: Results from Voyager 1

The low-energy charged particle instrument on Voyager 1 measured low-energy electrons and ions (energies >/= 26 and >/= 40 kiloelectron volts, respectively) in Saturn's magnetosphere. The first-order ion anisotropies on the dayside are generally in the corotation direction with the amplitude decreasing with decreasing distance to the planet. The ion pitch-angle distributions generally peak at 90 degrees , whereas the electron distributions tend to have field-aligned bidirectional maxima outside the L shell of Rhea. A large decrease in particle fluxes is seen near the L shell of Titan, while selective particle absorption (least affecting the lowest energy ions) is observed at the L shells of Rhea, Dione, and Tethys. The phase space density of ions with values of the first invariant in the range approximately 300 to 1000 million electron volts per gauss is consistent with a source in the outer magnetosphere. The ion population at higher energies (>/= 200 kiloelectron volts per nucleon) consists primarily of protons, molecular hydrogen, and helium. Spectra of all ion species exhibit an energy cutoff at energies >/= 2 million electron volts. The proton-to-helium ratio at equal energy per nucleon is larger (up to approximately 5 x 10(3)) than seen in other magnetospheres and is consistent with a local (nonsolar wind) proton source. In contrast to the magnetospheres of Jupiter and Earth, there are no lobe regions essentially devoid of particles in Saturn's nighttime magnetosphere. Electron pitch-angle distributions are generally bidirectional andfield-aligned, indicating closed field lines at high latitudes. Ions in this region are generally moving toward Saturn, while in the magnetosheath they exhibit strong antisunward streaming which is inconsistent with purely convective flows. Fluxes of magnetospheric ions downstream from the bow shock are present over distances >/= 200 Saturn radii from the planet. Novel features identified in the Saturnian magnetosphere include a mantle of low-energy particles extending inward from the dayside magnetopause to approximately 17 Saturn radii, at least two intensity dropouts occurring approximately 11 hours apart in the nighttime magnetosphere, and a pervasive population of energetic molecular hydrogen.     

Search by mariner 10 for electrons and protons accelerated in association with venus

The University of Chicago instrumnents on board the Mariner 10 spacecraft bound for Mercury have measured energy spectra and fluxes of electrons from 0.18 to 30 million electron volts and protons from 0.5 to 68 million electron volts along the plasma wake and in the bow shock regions associated with Venus. Unusually quiet solar conditions and improved instrumentation made it possible to search for much lower fluxes of protons and electrons in similar energy regions as compared to earlier Mariner missions to Venus-that is, lower by a factor of 10(2) for protons and 10(3) for electrons. We found no evidence for electrons or protons either in the form of increases of intensity or energy spectral changes in the vicinity of the planet, nor any evidence of bursts of radiation in or near the observed bow shock where bursts of electrons might have been expected in analogy with the bow shock at the earth. The importance of these null results for determining the necessary and sufficient conditions for particle acceleration is discussed with respect to magnetometer evidence that Venus does not have a magnetosphere.     

Io-accelerated electrons: predictions for pioneer 10 and pioneer 11

Based on a model in which electrons are accelerated to energies of 100 kiloelectron volts through sheaths associated with Io, predictions are made about energetic electrons to be observed by Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11 in the Jovian magnetosphere. This energetic electron source may be distinguishable from the solar wind diffusion source by the radial flux profile and by the characteristic electron energies.     

Energetic Charged Particles in Saturn's Magnetosphere: Voyager 1 Results

Voyager 1 provided the first look at Saturn's magnetotail and magnetosphere during relatively quiet interplanetary conditions. This report discusses the energetic particle populations of the outer magnetosphere of Saturn and absorption features associated with Titan and Rhea, and compares these observations with Pioneer 11 data of a year earlier. The trapped proton fluxes had soft spectra, represented by power laws E(-gamma) in kinetic energy E, with gamma approximately 7 in the outer magnetosphere and gamma approximately 9 in the magnetotail. Structure associated with the magnetotial was observed as close as 10 Saturn radii (R(s)) on the outbound trajectory. The proton and electron fluxes in the outer magnetosphere and in the magnetotail were variable and appeared to respond to changes in interplanetary conditions. Protons with energies >/= 2 million electron volts had free access to the magnetosphere from interplanetary space and were not stably trapped outside approximately 7.5 R(s).     

The magnetosphere of uranus: hot plasma and radiation environment

The low-energy charged-particle (LECP) instrument on Voyager 2 measured lowenergy electrons and ions near and within the magnetosphere of Uranus. Initial analysis of the LECP measurements has revealed the following. (i) The magnetospheric particle population consists principally of protons and electrons having energies to at least 4 and 1.2 megaelectron volts, respectively, with electron intensities substantially excceding proton intensities at a given energy. (ii) The intensity profile for both particle species shows evidence that the particles were swept by planetry satellites out to at least the orbit of Titania. (iii) The ion and electron spectra may be described by a Maxwellian core at low energies (less than about 200 kiloelectron volts) and a power law at high energies (greater than about 590 kiloelectron volts; exponentmicro, 3 to 10) except inside the orbit of Miranda, where power-law spectra (micro approximately 1.1 and 3.1 for electrons and protons, respectively) are observed. (iv) At ion energies between 0.6 and 1 megaelectron volt per nucleon, the composition is dominated by protons with a minor fraction (about 10(-3)) of molecular hydrogen; the lower limit for the ratio of hydrogen to helium is greater than 10(4). (v) The proton population is sufficiently intense that fluences greater than 10(16) per square centimeter can accumulate in 10(4) to 10(') years; such fluences are sufficient to polymerize carbon monoxide and methane ice surfaces. The overall morphology of Uranus' magnetosphere resembles that of Jupiter, as evidenced by the fact that the spacecraft crossed the plasma sheet through the dawn magnetosheath twice per planetary rotation period (17.3 hours). Uranus' magnetosphere differs from that of Jupiter and of Saturn in that the plasma 1 is at most 0.1 rather than 1. Therefore, little distortion ofthe field is expected from particle loading at distances less than about 15 Uranus radii.     

Visualization and Transport of Positron Emission from Proton Activation in vivo

Heavy charged particle beams can be widely used for cancer therapy if control in heterogeneous tissue is proved practical. A beam of protons at 200 million electron volts has been visualized in plastic and in a living animal by using an on-line positron camera. The fraction of the activity retained in the radiation site was found to be at least 70 percent of that produced in a dead animal. The sensitivity of the technique was established for a typical geometry.     

Energetic charged particles in the uranian magnetosphere

During the encounter with Uranus, the cosmic ray system on Voyager 2 measured significant fluxes of energetic electrons and protons in the regions of the planets magnetosphere where these particles could be stably trapped. The radial distribution of electrons with energies of megaelectron volts is strongly modulated by the sweeping effects ofthe three major inner satellites Miranda, Ariel, and Umbriel. The phase space density gradient of these electrons indicates that they are diffusing radially inward from a source in the outer magnetosphere or magnetotail. Differences in the energy spectra of protons having energies of approximately 1 to 8 megaelectron volts from two different directions indicate a strong dependence on pitch angle. From the locations of the absorption signatures observed in the electron flux, a centered dipole model for the magnetic field of Uranus with a tilt of 60.1 degrees has been derived, and a rotation period of the planet of 17.4 hours has also been calculated. This model provides independent confirmaton of more precise determinations made by other Voyager experiments.     

Possible production of high-energy gamma rays from proton acceleration in the extragalactic radio source markarian 501

The active galaxy Markarian 501 was discovered with air-Cerenkov telescopes at photon energies of 10 tera-electron volts. Such high energies may indicate that the gamma rays from Markarian 501 are due to the acceleration of protons rather than electrons. Furthermore, the observed absence of gamma ray attenuation due to electron-positron pair production in collisions with cosmic infrared photons implies a limit of 2 to 4 nanowatts per square meter per steradian for the energy flux of an extragalactic infrared radiation background at a wavelength of 25 micrometers. This limit provides important clues about the epoch of galaxy formation.     

Empirical models of the electron temperature and density in the nightside venus ionosphere

Empirical models of the electron temperature and electron density of the late afternoon and nightside Venus ionosphere have been derived from Pioneer Venus measurements acquired between 10 December 1978 and 23 March 1979. The models describe the average ionosphere conditions near 18 degrees N latitude between 150 and 700 kilometers altitude for solar zenith angles of 80 degrees to 180 degrees . The average index of solar flux was 200. A major feature of the density model is the factor of 10 decrease beyond 90 degrees followed by a very gradual decrease between 120 degrees and 180 degrees . The density at 150 degrees is about five times greater than observed by Venera 9 and 10 at solar minimum (solar flux approximately 80), a difference that is probably related to the effects of increased solar activity on the processes that maintain the nightside ionosphere. The nightside electron density profile from the model (above 150 kilometers) can be reproduced theoretically either by transport of 0(+) ions from the dayside or by precipitation of low-energy electrons. The ion transport process would require a horizontal flow velocity of about 300 meters per second, a value that is consistent with other Pioneer Venus observations. Although currently available energetic electron data do not yet permit the role of precipitation to be evaluated quantitatively, this process is clearly involved to some extent in the formation of the nightside ionosphere. Perhaps the most surprising feature of the temperature model is that the electron temperature remains high throughout the nightside ionosphere. These high nocturnal temperatures and the existence of a well-defined nightside ionopause suggest that energetic processes occur across the top of the entire nightside ionosphere, maintaining elevated temperatures. A heat flux of 2 x 10(10) electron volts per square centimeter per second, introduced at the ionopause, is consistent with the average electron temperature profile on the nightside at a solar zenith angle of 140 degrees .     

Energetic Charged Particles in Saturn's Magnetosphere: Voyager 2 Results

Results from the cosmic-ray system on Voyager 2 in Saturn's magnetosphere are presented. During the inbound pass through the outer magnetosphere, the >/= 0.43-million-electron-volt proton flux was more intense, and both the proton and electron fluxes were more variable, than previously observed. These changes are attributed to the influence on the magnetosphere of variations in the solar wind conditions. Outbound, beyond 18 Saturn radii, impulsive bursts of 0.14- to > 1.0- million-electron-volt electrons were observed. In the inner magnetosphere, the charged particle absorption signatures of Mimas, Enceladus, and Tethys are used to constrain the possible tilt and offset of Saturn's internal magnetic dipole. At approximately 3 Saturn radii, a transient decrease was observed in the electron flux which was not due to Mimas. Characteristics of this decrease suggest the existence of additional material, perhaps another satellite, in the orbit of Mimas.     

Gamma-ray flares from the Crab Nebula

A young and energetic pulsar powers the well-known Crab Nebula. Here, we describe two separate gamma-ray (photon energy greater than 100 mega-electron volts) flares from this source detected by the Large Area Telescope on board the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope. The first flare occurred in February 2009 and lasted approximately 16 days. The second flare was detected in September 2010 and lasted approximately 4 days. During these outbursts, the gamma-ray flux from the nebula increased by factors of four and six, respectively. The brevity of the flares implies that the gamma rays were emitted via synchrotron radiation from peta-electron-volt (10(15) electron volts) electrons in a region smaller than 1.4 × 10(-2) parsecs. These are the highest-energy particles that can be associated with a discrete astronomical source, and they pose challenges to particle acceleration theory.