Pipe drainage in the Eastern Padano-Veneta plain in north-east Italy

A survey has been carried out in three Regions of north-eastItaly, Emilia Romagna, Veneto and Friuli Venezia Giulia, withfour objectives: (a) to update the statistics on the use of pipedrainage; (b) to describe the farms that adopt this technique asa replacement of the traditional surface drainage methods;(c) to characterise the features of the drained soils and of thedrainage systems, and (d) to assess their performance. Withalmost 70.000 ha drained, the Regions present almost all of thepipe drained area in Italy. Pipe drainage first saw applicationsin the last seventies and became increasingly popular during theeighties. Most pipe drainage systems are installed in heavysoils, where the underground waterlogging is due to seasonalperched water table or to infiltrations from rivers or sea. Due tothe pedoclimatic variability of the area, slightly differentsolutions in terms of design variables and installation criteriaare found, but the following features are quite common: drainspacing 11–13 m slope 0.1–0.3%, depth 0.9–1 m. The pipe drains discharge in open collectors (single systems). Anincreasing interest for the use of the drainage systems forsubirrigation purposes has been observed, particularly inVeneto, requiring some adjustment in the drainage design. Theperformance of drainage in terms of control of water tabledepth and maintenance requirements are considered satisfactoryin almost all the cases. The most effective solutions forsuccessfully managing the subirrigation are also described.The introduction of pipe drains allows to enlarge fields (to morethan 10 has) and to save time for carrying out the operations forcrop cultivation. The crop yield in pipe drained fields is slightly higherto that obtained in the traditionally drained fields, withthe exception of winter wheat.     

Using drainage systems for supplementary irrigation

The use of drainage systems for supplementary irrigation is widespread in The Netherlands. One of the operating policies is to raise the surface water level during the growing season in order to reduce drainage (water conservation) or to create subsurface irrigation. This type of operation is based on practical experience, which can be far from optimal.To obtain better founded operational water management rules a total soil water/surface water model was built. In a case study the effects of using the drainage system in a dual-purpose manner on the arable crop production were simulated with the model. Also, the operational rules for managing this type of dual-purpose drainage systems were derived.The average annual simulated increase in crop transpiration due to water conservation and water supply for subsurface irrigation are 6.0 and 5.4 mm.y^–1, respectively. This is equivalent with 520 × 10³ and 460 × 10³ Dfl.y^–1 for the pilot region (2 Dfl 1 US $). The corresponding investments and operational costs are 600 × 10³ Dfl and 9 × 10³ Dfl.y^–1 for water conservation and 3200 × 10³ Dfl and 128 × 10³ Dfl.y^–1 for subsurface irrigation. Hence, water conservation is economically very profitable, whereas subsurface irrigation is less attractive.Comparing the management according to the model with current practice in a water-board during 1983 and 1986 learned that benefits can increase with some 50 and 500 Dfl per ha per year, respectively.     

水田灌排一体化系统的开发与应用

分析国内外农业灌溉和排水领域发展的研究现状和目前常见的灌排装置的特点,针对中国灌溉排水研究领域对节水灌溉、控制排水设施的迫切需求,提出了水田灌排一体化系统的设计方案.该系统能根据农作物不同时期对水位的需求,充分利用灌溉和降雨的水量,较为精确地控制水田的灌溉和排水水位,解决了原有灌排设备无法同时实现灌溉和排水自动控制的难题.实际应用结果表明,水田灌排一体化系统试验区和对照区相比,降雨量增加利用150 mm,降雨利用率提高21%,减少灌水量21%;水稻亩产量增加4.3%;提高肥料的利用效率,减少农业面源污染.该系统结构简单、操作方便,具有可观的经济、生态效益和广阔的应用前景.     

Reliability of drip irrigation systems under different operation conditions in Poland

Present crop production in Poland depends on climatic, hydrologic, pedologic, social and economic conditions. Drip irrigation systems will play a significant role in the future by fulfilling the requirements of intensive, energy-saving agricultural production. The total area under micro-irrigation in Poland is estimated to be approximately 3000 ha. Drip irrigation is currently applied mainly in orchards, vegetable farms and greenhouses. The investigations of drip irrigation have shown a high influence of the operating conditions on the reliability and productivity effects of the irrigation system. This paper contains the results of the investigations on the reliability of drip irrigation systems under different operation conditions such as system components, crops, water quality, fertigation and irrigation technology.     

塑料大棚控制排水系统设计及水管理研究

采用水管理软件DRAINMOD,以SEW30为指标,确定塑料大棚暗管控制排水系统的间距和埋深。然后根据淋洗土壤盐分的需要,选取不同降雨水平年,采用不同的暗管控制排水出口深度及不同的灌水量,共组合成9种方案,以SEW30、土壤0~60 cm土层盐分脱减率、排水量作为评价指标,分析出研究区不同降雨水平年的水管理方案：丰水年...     

市政工程中给排水施工的管理分析

随着国内城市化的推进,市政工程的给排水工程越发显得重要。传统的给排水施工技术已经无法满足城市发展要求,社会对给排水的施工质量提出了更高地要求。文章结合当前给排水施工管理现状,对给排水施工的施工管理各方面进行简要探析。     

Controlled water table management as a strategy for reducing salt loads from subsurface drainage under perennial agriculture in semi-arid Australia

Recent community based actions to ensure the sustainability of irrigation and protection of associated ecosystems in the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area (MIA) of Australia has seen the implementation of a regional Land and Water Management Plan. This aims to improve land and water management within the irrigation area and minimise downstream impacts associated with irrigation. One of the plan objectives is to decrease current salt loads generated from subsurface drainage in perennial horticulture within the area from 20 000 tonnes/year to 17 000 tonnes/year. In order to meet such objectives Controlled Water table Management (CWM) is being investigated as a possible ‘Best Management Practice’, to reduce drainage volumes and salt loads.During 2000–2002 a trial was conducted on a 15 ha subsurface drained vineyard. This compared a traditional unmanaged subsurface drainage system with a controlled drainage system utilizing weirs to maintain water tables and changes in irrigation scheduling to maximize the potential crop use of a shallow water table. Drainage volumes, salt loads and water table elevations throughout the field were monitored to investigate the effects of controlled drainage on drain flows and salt loads.Results from the experiment showed that controlled drainage significantly reduced drainage volumes and salt loads compared to unmanaged systems. However, there were marked increases in soil salinity which will need to be carefully monitored and managed.     

渗灌管埋深对土壤硝态氮含量的影响

以番茄为供试作物,通过观测渗灌灌水前和灌水后土壤水分剖面以及硝态氮含量的变化．研究了保护地渗灌及其渗灌管埋深对土壤硝态氮运移及积累过程的影响。试验结果表明,在渗灌管埋深为20～40cm范围内,保护地渗灌灌水后土壤硝态氮均表现出明显的表聚特性;土壤含水量与土层深度乘积与土壤硝态氮含量之间存在着极显著相关关系。在不同渗灌管埋深处理中以30cm埋深且渗灌管下有防渗槽的处理,其硝态氮在表层积累最少。     

作物根区无压地下灌溉技术灌水指标研究

作物根区无压地下灌溉技术是一个正在研究开发的新的节水灌溉技术。通过在温室大棚种植黄瓜、番茄,采用不同供水压力和不同灌溉方式试验,研究分析了根区无压地下灌溉对作物根区土壤水分、耗水量、产量和作物品质等指标的影响。研究表明该技术能够满足黄瓜和番茄需水量要求;与传统沟灌相比能够节约灌溉水量30%以上;它并不降低作物产量,反而提高了水分利用率和水分生产率,并使黄瓜和番茄作物品质得到了显著改善。     

Strategies for reducing subsurface drainage in irrigated agriculture through improved irrigation

The traditional approach ofinstalling subsurface drainage systems tosolve shallow ground water problems is notfeasible along the west side of the SanJoaquin Valley of California because of thelack of drain water disposal methods thatare economical, technically feasible, andenvironmentally friendly. Thus, optionssuch as drainage reduction through improvedirrigation and drain water reuse are beingexamined as methods for coping with thesubsurface drainage problem. This paperdiscusses options for reducing subsurfacedrainage through improved irrigationpractices. Options are discussed forimproving irrigation system design such asupgrading existing irrigation methods andconverting to systems with higher potentialirrigation efficiencies. Methods forimproving water management are alsopresented. Case studies on upgradingexisting systems or converting to otherirrigation methods are presented along with study results of the effect of variouspolicies on reducing subsurface drainage.     

Sensitivity analysis of optimal operation of irrigation supply systems with water quality considerations

A model for optimal operation of water supply/irrigation systems of various water quality sources, with treatment plants, multiple water quality conservative factors, and dilution junctions is presented. The objective function includes water cost at the sources, water conveyance costs which account for the hydraulics of the network indirectly, water treatment cost, and yield reduction costs of irrigated crops due to irrigation with poor quality water. The model can be used for systems with supply by canals as well as pipes, which serve both drinking water demands of urban/rural consumers and field irrigation requirements. The general nonlinear optimization problem has been simplified by decomposing it to a problem with linear constraints and nonlinear objective function. This problem is solved using the projected gradient method. The method is demonstrated for a regional water supply system in southern Israel that contains 39 pipes, 37 nodes, 11 sources, 10 agricultural consumers, and 4 domestic consumers. The optimal operation solution is described by discharge and salinity values for all pipes of the network. Sensitivity of the optimal solution to changes in the parameters is examined. The solution was found to be sensitive to the upper limit on drinking water quality, with total cost being reduced by 5% as the upper limit increases from 260 to 600 mg Cl l^–1. The effect of income from unit crop yield is more pronounced. An increase of income by a factor of 20 results in an increase of the total cost by a factor of 3, thus encouraging more use of fresh water as long as the marginal cost of water supply is smaller than the marginal decrease in yield loss. The effect of conveyance cost becomes more pronounced as its cost increases. An increase by a factor of 100 results in an increase of the total cost by about 14%. The network studied has a long pipe that connects two distinct parts of the network and permits the supply of fresh water from one part to the other. Increasing the maximum permitted discharge in this pipe from 0 to 200 m³ h^–1 reduces the total cost by 11%. Increasing the maximum discharge at one of the sources from 90 to 300 m³ h^–1 reduces the total cost by about 8%.     

Economic incentives reduce irrigation deliveries and drain water volume

This paper describes the application of an economic incentive program to achieve water quality objectives by motivating improvements in farm-level water management practices. The program includes farm-specific water allotments, tiered water pricing, and low-interest loans for purchasing irrigation equipment. The implementation of this program in a California water district has resulted in significant reductions in irrigation deliveries and drain water volume. Since the program was implemented, average irrigation depths have declined by 25% on cotton fields, 9% on tomatoes, 10% on cantaloupes, 30% on seed alfalfa, and 29% on grain fields. The average volume of drain water collected each year in subsurface drainage systems has declined from 4.8 million m³ during 1986 through 1989 to 2.6 million m³ during 1990 through 1993. These results confirm that economic incentives can be effective in generating improvements in water quality.     

Farmers,agencies and irrigation systems: A comparison of two village schemes in the Bakel Department in Senegal

The irrigation schemes of the villages Gandé and Galladé in the Bakel Department in Senegal are managed by a farmer association and an agency. The agency had to install, repair and maintain motorpumps, assist in the lay-out of canals, structures and parcels, and to provide fuel and other inputs on credit. Associations had to manage the irrigation systems and repay the agency in time and in proportion to amounts of inputs received.The Gandé association and the agency came frequently into conflict, because the level of agency support was low, and the association did not repay in time. The Galladé association and the agency did not come into conflict, because the level of agency support was satisfactory, and the association repaid in time. Repayment depended on profitability of irrigation, which was lower in Gandé than in Galladé, because consumption of water and fuel were in Gandé two times higher than in Galladé. This was not so much caused by differences in water management, but because of differences in physical and technical characteristics of the irrigation systems.     

Simulation of drainage water quality with DRAINMOD

The design and management of drainage systems should consider impacts on drainage water quality and receiving streams, as well as on agricultural productivity. Two simulation models that are being developed to predict these impacts are briefly described. DRAINMOD-N uses hydrologic predictions by DRAINMOD, including daily soil water fluxes, in numerical solutions to the advective-dispersive-reactive (ADR) equation to describe movement and fate of NO₃-N in shallow water table soils. DRAINMOD- CREAMS links DRAINMOD hydrology with submodels in CREAMS to predict effects of drainage treatment and controlled drainage losses of sediment and agricultural chemicals via surface runoff. The models were applied to analyze effects of drainage intensity on a Portsmouth sandy loam in eastern North Carolina. Depending on surface depressional storage, agricultural production objectives could be satisfied with drain spacings of 40 m or less. Predicted effects of drainage design and management on NO₃-N losses were substantial. Increasing drain spacing from 20 m to 40 m reduced predicted NO₃-N losses by over 45% for both good and poor surface drainage. Controlled drainage further decreases NO₃-N losses. For example, predicted average annual NO₃-N losses for a 30 m spacing were reduced 50% by controlled drainage. Splitting the application of nitrogen fertilizer, so that 100 kg/ha is applied at planting and 50 kg/ha is applied 37 days later, reduced average predicted NO₃-N losses but by only 5 to 6%. This practice was more effective in years when heavy rainfall occurred directly after planting. In contrast to effects on NO₃-N losses, reducing drainage intensity by increasing drain spacing or use of controlled drainage increased predicted losses of sediment and phosphorus (P). These losses were small for relatively flat conditions (0.2% slope), but may be large for even moderate slopes. For example, predicted sediment losses for a 2% slope exceeded 8000 kg/ha for a poorly drained condition (drain spacing of 100 m), but were reduced to 2100 kg/ha for a 20 m spacing. Agricultural production and water quality goals are sometimes in conflict. Our results indicate that simulation modeling can be used to examine the benefits of alternative designs and management strategies, from both production and environmental points-of-view. The utility of this methodology places additional emphasis on the need for field experiments to test the validity of the models over a range of soil, site and climatological conditions.     

考虑配置的多源注水系统泵站运行方案优化

为了实现对多源注水系统中各站内运行注水泵的型号、数量及运行参数同时进行优化,以系统输入功率最小为优化目标,考虑水量平衡、泵流量、泵正常运行压力、泵型号等约束,建立了考虑泵配置的泵站运行方案优化数学模型.针对优化问题的特点,设计了双重编码改进遗传算法对模型进行求解.在双重编码中,第1行采用实数编码表示泵的流量,第2行采用整数编码表示泵所属注水站编号,实现了对优化变量的准确描述,并指出了解的编码为变长度编码.设计了根据流量确定泵型号的方法,泵的其他运行参数根据选择的泵型号确定.在改进遗传算法操作过程中,设计了初始解的产生方法及与问题相适应的多种交叉和变异方法,使部分约束条件得到了满足,减少了不可行解的数量.利用本算法对某深度注水系统进行了优化设计,优化后系统输入功率比现状降低了2.42%,表明在多源注水系统中对泵的配置及运行参数进行同时优化节能效果明显.     

Managing the water balance of The Fayoum Depression,Egypt

A study of the water balances of The Fayoum irrigated lands and Lake Qarun was made to investigate the management of the irrigation system and the efficiency of irrigation water use. The two water balances are strongly interrelated. The drainage flow to Lake Qarun and the water level of the Lake are in delicate balance. A rise in Lake level causes the inundation of adjacent land. Management of The Fayoum water balance assumes control over irrigation water flows, but this control has technical and organizational limitations. Also discussed is the influence of irrigation practices in The Fayoum on the water balance (e.g., the autumn flushing of fields and farmers' preference for not irrigating at night in winter). Notwithstanding a high overall efficiency, irrigation efficiency during the winter is low. The reasons for this are given, together with the constraints against improving system management. Improved uniformity of the division and application of irrigation water will enable a better technical control of flows and will result in better water management in The Fayoum. Abbreviations: FID — Fayoum Irrigation Department, 1 feddan (fe) — 0.4 ha, 1 mcm — 1 million cubic metres: an average annual flow of 3.17 m³/s gives 100 mcm, m³/fe.year — supplied volume (m³) per surface area (fe) per year: 1000 m³/fe.year equals 240 mm/year, MSL — Mean Sea Level     

Irrigation timeliness indicators and application in smallholder irrigation systems in Zimbabwe

Timing of supply of irrigation water is an important measure of water management performance. Yet despite this widely accepted importance of timeliness, few studies have attempted to quantify this performance indicator. This paper suggests a methodology for quantifying timeliness. The indices thus generated are used to compare the performance of some types of smallholder irrigation schemes in Zimbabwe. Results indicate that applying measures of timeliness helps to assess water management practices across scheme types.The methodology given in this paper differentiates between timely irrigation deliveries which meet Crop Water Requirements (CWR) and surplus water supplies due to poor timeliness which cannot be used by the crop, hence denoting wastage. The timeliness indices provide more information regarding management practices than simple measures of total water applications over a given season.     

A new approach to water management of tropical peatlands: a case study from Malaysia

The use of peatlands in the humid tropics requires drainage to remove excess rainfall. The design principles for the drainage systems currently being implemented on peatlands are the same as for mineral soils. The objective of such systems is the timely removal of excess rainfall by surface runoff. For peatlands, with their different soil-hydraulic characteristics, these systems have resulted in poor watertable control and high rates of irreversible subsidence. Concerns about this rate of subsidence and the level of sustainability of the present land use have prompted a study to develop a new water management system. This new system includes a shift from a drainage system that focuses on discharge of excess water towards a system that combines drainage and water conservation. In the new two-step design, the drain spacing and corresponding drain discharges are obtained with a steady-state approach. These outputs are used to calculate the capacity of the drains, including control structures, using an unsteady-state approach. The new system results in a shallower but more narrowly spaced drainage system and maintains a more constant but relatively high watertable and reduces subsidence. It should be remembered however, that even with the improved water management, subsidence cannot be arrested; it is the price one has to pay for the use of tropical peatlands.     

Asset management modelling framework for irrigation and drainage systems: Principles and case study application

Sustainability of irrigation and drainage infrastructure poses many challenges to many irrigation authorities worldwide due to a mismatch between the actual cost incurred in the provision of irrigation and drainage service and pricing of this service. This shortfall often leads to inadequate expenditure on maintenance in the absence of adequate subsidies from government or other sources.The asset management modelling framework (AMMF) presented in this paper enables the quantification of on-going ownership costs and operation costs. A life cycle cost (LCC) model for the evaluation of alternative irrigation and drainage asset management strategies is also presented. The AMMF is applied to the evaluation of asset ownership costs and LCC for alternative maintenance and interest rate scenarios in the Cu Chi irrigation system, Vietnam. The cost of three renewal strategies was evaluated: linear depreciation, full annuity and partial annuity. The cost ranges between US$ 28.00/ha and US$ 41.00/ha when interest rate varies between 9 and 3%. The average maintenance expenditure during recent years was estimated to be only US$ 1.30/ha which translates into 0.68% of the total asset replacement cost.The application of a simplified LCC model reveals that the least LCC varies with the level of maintenance and interest rate between US$ 353.5/ha for 5% maintenance expenditure and 12% interest rate to US$ 522.3/ha for 3% maintenance expenditure and 6% interest rate. The importance of exercising value judgements in applying the LCC model is also emphasised and discussed.     

农田排水对塔里木河水质盐化的影响研究

在塔里木河流域农田排水的发展可以划分为三个阶段,即“旱排水”、排水渠建立和逐步完善阶段。农田排水虽对灌区内部的盐渍化治理起到了很大的作用,但排水进入河流对河水的水质盐化影响很大。所以应寻找新的排水出路,多途径排水。同时发展节水灌溉,改变传统的排水洗盐方式,才是干旱区农业发展的方向。