Collaborative resource management and rural livelihoods around protected areas: A case study of Mount Elgon National Park,Uganda

Collaborative resource management agreements (CRMAs) have been introduced to improve people–park relations and enhance rural livelihoods. Based on household surveys, key informant interviews, focus group discussions and a review of literature we investigated differences in livelihood assets, park dependence and livelihood outcomes for households with and without CRMAs. We investigated the role of park environmental incomes (PEI) in poverty alleviation and factors influencing dependency on PEI. Results revealed significant differences in household assets but no significant differences in park dependence and livelihood outcomes. People report that PEI on average constitute 18% of total incomes. Poor households have a higher dependency on PEI and it reduces income inequality by 13%.CRMAs have a significant positive effect on total PEI but no significant effect on total household income and relative environmental income. In areas with CRMAs, taungya farming and bee keeping practiced as part of the CRMAs increase annual household incomes by 26% and 28% respectively and constitute potential pathways out of poverty. However, the impact of the agreements is still low due to their limited scale and coverage and the targeting criteria which limits access for communities with a high dependency on park resources and high levels of conflict.     

Effectiveness of Protected Area Governance in the Conservation of Mt. Marsabit Forest Ecosystem,Kenya

ABSTRACT

Protected area systems (PAs) have the potential to conserve natural resources and provide social and economic benefits to local communities. Establishing and maintaining good governance and associated mechanisms is necessary for adaptive management of PAs. To test this hypothesis, we analyzed the relationships between various stakeholders and the effectiveness of PA governance of Mt. Marsabit forest ecosystem in Kenya. We used social network analysis (SNA) to assess the interactions between actors, and factor analysis to analyze the effectiveness of governance criteria. Governance of Mt. Marsabit forest ecosystem was complex with a multiplicity of stakeholders from diverse interests. Governance was moderately effective (61%) with positive indicators including the regulatory framework, delineation of areas under conservation, and reduction in poaching. The low level of interactions and associations among stakeholders suggest a weakness in the networks that may negatively affect the flow of information and other resources. This weakness was attributed to a lack of institutionalization of the links leading to poor coordination of processes. Local communities were inadequately represented in the governance of this PA despite being important actors. Our study finds that local ownership and strong linkages between actors are important ingredients for effective governance of PAs.     

中国自然保护区经费与管理问题探讨(英文)

在2000年,作者对50个自然保护区进行了访问和调查,获取大量相关数据。在分析中国自然保护区发展与管理的基础上,提出了保护区收支与管理中存在的缺乏统一的管理、特殊的指导和有效的监督不健全、资金收入与投资困乏、各省在资金投入的不平衡等主要问题。这些问题导致了保护区基本建设与运行资金的缺乏,以及保护区资源与环境的破坏,进而导致许多保护区保护转向以赢利为目的的商业运营。结合上述问题提出了初步的解决方案。     

Assessing opportunity costs of conservation: Ingredients for protected area management in the Kakamega Forest,Western Kenya

The Kakamega Forest is the only remaining tropical rainforest fragment in Western Kenya and hosts large numbers of endemic animal and plant species. Protected areas were established decades ago in order to preserve the forest's unique biodiversity from being converted into agricultural land by the regions large number of small-scale farmers. Nonetheless, recent research shows that degradation continues at alarming rates. In this paper we address an important challenge faced by protected area management, namely, the design of a cost-effective incentive scheme that balances local demand for subsistence non-timber forest products against conservation interests. Using primary data collected from 369 randomly selected farm-households we combine a farm-household classification with mathematical programming in order to estimate the opportunity costs of conserving the Kakamega Forest and restricting access to non-timber forest product resources. We validate our model and analyze the impact of changes in major economic frame conditions on our results before we derive recommendations for an improved protected area management in the study region. Our findings suggest that a more flexible approach to determining the price of recently established forest product extraction permits would greatly enhance management efficiency without significantly compromising local wellbeing.     

Logging within protected areas: Spatial evaluation of the monarch butterfly biosphere reserve, Mexico

Depending on the particular sociopolitical situation of a country or region, as well as the degree of dependence that a population has on its vegetation resources, both forest management or designating protected areas may serve as effective policies to protect highly valuable forest areas in the long term. Biosphere Reserves, where forest management is allowed in buffer zones but completely restricted in core zones, are an important category in this regard. They are of special importance in developing countries where a high dependency on natural resources as source of subsistence is still prevalent. This paper analyzes the effectiveness of authorized logging versus strict protection in preserving the forest cover within the Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve (MBBR), in its portion in Michoacán state, México. This protected area is crucial for the preservation of the migratory monarch butterfly, and has been negatively impacted by logging and other activities. Data on logging permits from 1993 to 2006 were extracted and spatially digitized from all the officially approved Forest Management Programs (FMP) of the MBBR’s communities. Based on the delimitation of authorized logging areas, an analysis of the processes of change in forest cover was made, by means of spatial and statistical comparisons among land tenure units (LTU) with and without FMP. Statistical analyses found no significant differences of loss rates of conserved canopy cover forest between LTU with and without FMP, nor with other change processes such as recovery and re-vegetation. However, deforestation due to land use changes was significantly greater in LTU lacking FMP, although this involved a relatively small area. Spatial analyses clearly showed where the forest disturbance is concentrated, and that it is mostly caused by illegal logging and by inadequate management (extraction of timber beyond the authorized period, and forest fragmentation led by individual use of communal land). The results show that the total disturbance observed from 1993 to 2006 (5239 ha) is explained in 61% by illegal logging, 33% by extemporaneous authorized extractions and only 6% by authorized logging during the scheduled period. Thus FMP are an effective option for maintaining the forest cover in the reserve. The procedure used in the present analysis can be an effective and accessible monitoring tool, which can be used by officials responsible for forest use to supervise the strict application of logging licenses, and to give support to decision making when renewing, redesigning or revoking logging licenses.     

Policy and institutional support for agroforestry: an analysis of two Ecuadorian case studies

Institutional and policy issues are now recognized as high priority items in agroforestry research. However, such studies based on actual field experiences seldom seem to have been undertaken. To help address this deficiency, a study was undertaken in Ecuador to evaluate institutional and policy impacts on agroforestry dissemination using two field projects as case studies.The projects were in contrasting ecological locations: the Amazonian lowlands (the Coca Agroforestry Project), and the Andean highlands (the PROMUSTA project). The impact of policy and institutional constraints (such as land tenure, research and extension support, marketing and pricing, and credit) on the implementation of these projects was assessed based on interviews with farmers and project officials as well as analyses of secondary data. The Coca project was found to be adversely impacted by the lack of extension, product marketing, and credit availability. The principal institutional constraints for the Andean project included legal obstacles to farm-land procurement, inadequate extension, little state-financial assistance, and limited affordable credit. The relevance of these issues was location specific: while access to land was not a serious constraint in the lowlands, it was a major issue in the highlands.The study validates the premise that policy and institutional evaluations should become an essential component of design and implementation of agroforestry projects. Although the components of a sound policy framework might be similar in most developing-country situations, it may not be possible to evolve universally applicable procedures for agroforestry-policy formulation because of the location-specificity of the promoted systems and the institutional issue related to their adoption.Florida Agricultural Experiment Station Journal Series No. R-03861.     

The Shamba system: an indigenous system of food production from forest areas in Kenya

The Shamba system, a form of Taungya where agricultural crops are grown together with forest tree species, has been quite widespread in the high-potential areas of Kenya since the early 1900s, and still is very popular. When properly practiced, the system allows sustained, optimum production of food crops along with forestry species from the same land and thus meets most of the social and economic needs of the shamba farmer. This paper briefly describes the system's productivity and functioning and analyses its ecological as well as socio-economic characteristics.     

Tourist behavior and conservation awareness on eating wild edible plants in mountainous protected areas: a case study in Northwest China

Protected areas in tourist hot spots are under increasing pressure from growing commercial tourism and wild plants utilization. However, few studies of tourists’ behaviors and attitudes towards eating wild edible plants in protected areas have been conducted. This study presents the results of an investigation conducted on 202 tourists and 334 households in the Qinling Mountains in China to examine relationships between harvest/eating wild edible plants and the tourism experience. According to the results, there is a high demand for wild edible plants by tourists and local people because of traditions and the desire for green food. Tourists with a higher level of education, maturity, or environmental awareness eat wild edible plants to a lesser extent. However, higher income may encourage greater utilization of wildland resources. Analytical results indicate significant inconsistency between tourists’ perceptions of wildland resource conservation and their actual behavior. Besides, the respondents perceive a low level of environmental responsibility in spite of their stated environmental awareness. This study highlights the need to fulfill ecological responsibility when tourism occurs in protected areas to achieve species conservation and sustainability.     

Post-fire analysis of pre-fire mapping of fire-risk: A recent case study from Mt. Carmel (Israel)

The recent devastating wildfire on Mt. Carmel provided a unique opportunity to evaluate a fire-risk map constructed for the region, published two years ago in this journal. This largest forest fire in the history of Israel, occurred during December 2010, covering 2180 ha, burning more than half-million trees and causing the loss of life of 45 people.A study of fire risk in this area was conducted between 2007 and 2009 utilizing a combination of Monte Carlo simulation of spatial spread of fire ignition with fire behavior model (FARSITE). The fire risk map produced in 2009 is assessed here with reference to the area burnt during December 2010. The results showed that most of burnt areas corresponded to high risk levels in the risk map. According to a null model, the five lower risk levels taken together would have corresponded to 50% of the burnt area, while in fact they were presented in only 5.6% of the area. In contrast, the three highest risk levels, for which the null model expectation would be a representation of 30%, were represented in 87% of the area. Comparing the fire risk map against the map of the real recent fire provided support to the general approach, and strengthened the confidence of our fire risk model.     

Expansion of traditional land-use and deforestation: a case study of an adat forest in the Kandilo Subwatershed,East Kalimantan,Indonesia

Deforestation issues are more problematic when indigenous(adat) communities,living within a forest,have lived there for many generations.These adat communities,who employ traditional land-use,are frequently accused of encroaching on the forest.To understand existing and future trends in the spatial patterns of the expansion of traditional land-use and deforestation,we conducted a case study in the Kandilo Subwatershed using mixed methods with image interpretation,spatial modelling and sociocultural surveys to examine the interrelationships between physical conditions,community characteristics and traditional land-use expansion.We investigated community characteristics through household interviews,communication with key informants,and discussions with focusgroups.By using an area production model,we were able to analyze the effect of improved farming systems,policy intervention and law enforcement on traditional land-use expansion and deforestation.Based on our examination of a 20-year period of traditional land-use activities in adat forests,the evidence indicated that the steeper the slope of the land and the farther the distance from the village,the lower the rate of deforestation.Our study found that customary law,regulating traditional land-use,played an important role in controlling deforestation and land degradation.We conclude that the integration of land allocation,improved farming practices and enforcement of customary law are effective measures to improve traditional land productivity while avoiding deforestation and land degradation.     

The role of transfrontier conservation areas and their institutional framework in natural resource-based conflict management: A review

Contests over scarce and shared natural resources continue to headline conflicts across the world’s geographic regions. The transfrontier conservation areas (TFCAs) concept gained widespread acceptance as one of the promising conflict management strategies. However, following the establishment of TFCAs by various countries, questions about their contribution to conflict management and resolution are emerging. Motivated by the institutional work concept, the contribution of TFCAs and their institutional framework for peace and cooperation efforts was assessed. Using field experience and the archival method, 131 journal articles, books and reports on natural resources and conflict management were reviewed between 2010 and 2016. The review process focused mainly, but not limited to TFCAs and their institutional frameworks in the Southern African Development Community (SADC). Findings indicate that TFCAs and their institutional frameworks are relevant to peace and cooperation efforts in SADC provided the stakeholders at various levels are committed to the actions agreed upon. However, making conclusive statements without further comprehensive studies on the contribution of other peace-promoting interventions within the SADC region besides TFCAs may be ill conceived. Governments and other key stakeholders are recommended to further harmonize conservation legislation, institutions and management practices to promote cooperation at the local and regional level.     

Woody vegetation of protected areas in northern Togo. Cases of Barkoissi,Galangashi and Oti-Keran: ecological and structure analyses of plant communities

The 170 samples obtained from ligneous investigation in Barkoissi, Galangashi and Oti-Keran protected areas (northern -     

Collective action on forest governance: An institutional analysis of the Cambodian community forest system

Decentralisation in Cambodia has long been propagated as a means to enhance local engagement with governance structures. But in the forestry sector, even limited devolution of powers often constrains local user groups with excessive bureaucratic burdens. In addition, entrenched political economy interests tend to inhibit effective governance. To investigate the apparent institutional malaise that seems to characterise community forestry sites in Cambodia, this study employed a mixed methods approach to evaluate capacities to engage in collective action on forest governance. In our two case studies, community forestry is characterised by the exclusion of younger and poorer households from formal meetings, high costs and limited benefits for members, informal information channels where women and poorer households are excluded, low levels of formalisation, high enforcement costs and massive external pressures. The article calls for community forest entities to develop locally-adapted graduated sanction mechanisms through the receipt of greater support for internal monitoring and enforcement.     

Faunal mortality on roads due to religious tourism across time and space in protected areas: A case study from south India

The presence of roads in any landscape is known to negatively influence terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Many tourist destinations and religious enclaves in developing countries are inside protected areas (PA). They are well connected by roads and attract thousands of visitors. The effect of such large human congregations inside PA on biodiversity is not well understood. Here, we address the impacts of increased vehicular traffic due to religious tourism on local fauna inside the Kalakad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve in south India. We sampled sections of surfaced roads for mortalities before and during an annual festival across three habitats in 2008 and 2009. Millipedes, anurans, insects and reptiles dominated the mortalities and mammals avoided the roads. A total of 1413 individuals belonging to 56 species were killed on roads. Nocturnal species constituted 50% of these mortalities and 64% of the species composition. There was a 299% increase in road mortalities and 648% increase in nocturnal species mortality during the festival compared to those before the festival. Mean mortalities varied across habitats and were highest in moist deciduous forests. Mortalities were influenced significantly by vehicular traffic rather than rainfall. Indications of a temporary local extinction were evident beyond certain threshold of vehicular movement. The number of vehicles plying on the roads was three times higher than the threshold level as determined in this study. The festival also had a spillover effect by causing increased mortalities on roads not connected to the temple. We discuss several strategies to minimize impacts due to large scale vehicular movement inside protected areas.     

Agroforestry systems reduce invasive species richness and diversity in the surroundings of protected areas

The Serra do Brigadeiro State Park (PESB) is one of the largest fragments of Brazilian Atlantic Rainforest, and it is relevant for native species conservation. However, monocultures settled around the Park resulted in extensive open areas that facilitate the establishment of alien species on the PESB perimeter, which may threaten native species conservation therein, since biological invasion is the second main cause of global biodiversity loss. In this region, there are also farmers planting agroforestry systems (AFS), characterized by tree-based intercropping, which are structurally more similar to the Atlantic Rainforest reminiscent fragments present in the region and may limit local occurrence of potentially invasive exotic weeds for several reasons, such as the high levels of shade provided by trees, the groundcover that result from loss of tree leaves and the increased competition for belowground resources. This study aimed to test whether AFS limit exotic species establishment when compared to monoculture systems. Accordingly, three coffee monocultures and three agroforestry coffee plantations around the PESB were studied. In each of the six study areas, 30 plots of 1 m² were established between the lines of coffee plantation, where all species present were surveyed. In both treatments, rarefaction curves were constructed to evaluate native and exotic richness, and diversity of these two categories was estimated through Simpson index inverse (1/D). All 13 sampled exotic species were present in monocultures, but only three of them occurred in AFS. Besides, alien diversity in monocultures (\(1/D\) = 2.173 ± 0.011) was significantly higher than in AFS (\(1/D\) = 1.031 ± 0.001). Such changes in alien plant community between land-use show that AFSs limit invasive species establishment. Therefore, when planted around protected areas, AFS may contribute to the control of biological invasions and to biodiversity conservation.     

The competitiveness of the phytosociological attributes of the protected areas in Bangladesh with that in the other tropical countries

ABSTRACT

Many forest reserves in Bangladesh have been converted to protected areas (PAs) to conserve the forests resources from further depletion. This study has investigated if such initiatives have improved the state of biodiversity of these PAs amid tremendous anthropogenic pressure on forest resources. We have assessed the phytosociological attributes of the PAs in the country through a case study at Kaptai National Park (KNP) and compared the attributes with those of the adjacent areas and of the tropical forests across the world. We have identified 52 species belonging to 45 genera and 28 families. The most dominant species in KNP was Dipterocarpus spp. and the adjacent area was dominated by Tectona grandis. Unexpectedly, the Shannon-Wiener index of KNP has dropped down from 2.98 in 2000 to 0.90 in 2014. However, in terms of relative density, relative dominance, and relative frequency, KNP was better than the adjacent areas. In contrast, the mean Shannon-Wiener index in KNP (0.90) was smaller than that in the tropical countries (2.99). We recommend strengthening effective comanagement of PAs and enabling nonforestry income generation activities for the forest-dependent people so that the biodiversity of the PAs can be enriched while people’s livelihoods are ensured.     

Mammalian browsing damage in the Mt. Cole State forest,southeastern Australia: analysis of browsing patterns,spatial relationships and browse selection

Browsing by mammals can have a substantial impact on the survival, growth and form of regenerating forest trees. This study investigated the severity and distribution of mammalian browsing damage, and the degree to which eucalypt seedlings (Eucalyptus spp.) were selected for browsing on three regenerating native forest coupes in southeastern Australia. Damage was greatest 6 months after eucalypt germination and at this time, both messmate (Eucalyptus obliqua) and blue gum (E. globulus) seedlings were browsed at similar intensity. Nine and 12 months after germination, messmate was browsed more heavily than blue gum. Consistent relationships between browsing damage and both distance from the forest edge and wallaby density were not observed. Analysis of use and availability data for messmate, blue gum and manna gum (E. viminalis) seedlings showed that messmate was selected for browsing more than expected by chance while manna gum was browsed less than expected. Mammalian browsing affects a substantial portion of Victorias native forest estate, and could alter the species composition of future forests. Research into the ecology of browsing species and the development of non-lethal browsing reduction strategies is seen as a priority for the management of mammalian browsing in Victoria.     

A journey towards shared governance: status and prospects for collaborative management in the protected areas of Bangladesh

Establishment of Protected Areas (PAs), in the face of rapid deforestation, forest degradation and climate change has been one of the key efforts in conservation of biodiversity worldwide in recent times. While Bangladesh has gained a degree of prominence in the world for its successful social forestry programs, the concept of collaborative protected area management is rather new in the country, initiated in 2004 by the Bangladesh Forest Department in five PAs with financial assistance from USAID. Based on empirical evidence from three of the pilot PAs, we examined the achievements and associated challenges and prospects for co-management. Our fieldwork revealed a number of challenges faced by co-management institutions: (1) institutions were dominated by the elite group, overshadowing the voice of the community people; (2) mutual trust and collective performance are key to good governance but had not taken root in the PAs; (3) encroachment onto forest land and subsequent conversion to agriculture remained a serious problem that discouraged forest-dependent people from participating actively in co-management initiatives; (4) legal provisions (including acts, rules and policies) were not clearly and adequately disseminated and understood at the community level; (5) there remained a degree of ambiguity regarding the roles and responsibilities of forest department (FD) and co-management committees (CMC) in field operations, and this was not enhancing transparency and accountability of the overall initiative; (6) the long-term sustainability of co-management institutions was another major concern, as the local intuitional structure was still in a nascent stage, and provisioning of resources (either internally or externally) remained somewhat uncertain. We offer recommendations for improvement.     

雷州市九龙山风景区植物区系与植被

广东省雷州市九龙山风景区植物共记录有种子植物112科394属579种（包括变种）,其中裸子植物7科9属14种,被子植物105科385属565种;其中野生81科294属423种,栽培69科162属227种;植物区系表现了我国北热带植物区系资源的典型性,植物种类丰富,广布种较多;天然植被以湿地红树林群落、次生季雨林和灌丛为优势,人工植被以坡地尾叶桉和热带作物等为优势;是一个具有极大科研价值和保存价值的地区。建议加快红树林国家级湿地公园建设,加强其自然资源保护与生态旅游开发力度。     

A methodology for the description of border hedges and the analysis of variables influencing their distribution: a case study in western Kenya

This paper presents results from a survey of border hedges on farmland in western Kenya. The survey covered 160000 ha of high potential land in eastern Siaya District and Vihiga District of western Kenya. The survey attempted to widen the knowledge of the typology, the biomass and the parameters influencing the spatial distribution of hedge types. Spatial analysis was used to delimit hedge type sub-regions (using cluster analysis) and to identify the variables influencing the spatial distribution of hedge types (using discriminant analysis). It is demonstrated that a complex association of variables is influencing the subdivision of the two districts in hedge type sub-regions in which ethnicity, population density, area in woodlots and ecological variables like elevation, rainfall and soil fertility are important variables. These variables are influencing each other and are responsible for the contrasting situation in Vihiga and Siaya District. Border hedges have similar functions in both districts (demarcation of land, to prevent cattle from entering), nevertheless species composition and dimensions differ remarkably in both districts. Border hedges in Siaya District are poorly managed or not managed at all. In Vihiga District people are used to manage their hedges. Agroforestry techniques, for example techniques based on frequent pruning of border hedges, have a high chance in being successful in this district because no additional investment in labour or time is required. The spatial distribution in the amount of biomass is strongly correlated with the distribution in the per cent area ground cover of border hedges. This means that secondary data on the area in hedges derived from aerial photographs can serve as a useful indicator of the biomass present. As a result, the most difficult part of the field survey, the destructive sampling for the determination of the biomass, can be eliminated, making general surveys considerably easier. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.