Multipurpose conversion management of Scots pine towards mixed oak–birch stands—A long-term simulation approach

The forest growth model 4C was used to investigate how conversion management of a Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stand towards a mixed oak–birch stand would affect stand structural development – and hence biodiversity and productivity – in the long term. For this purpose the 4C model was parameterised for natural regeneration of light demanding species and extended for management of multi-layered stands. A series of structural indicators was selected to describe key factors of forest biodiversity at the stand scale. Two consecutive aspects of Scots pine conversion were tested: (1) the choice of conversion strategy between thinning and gap creation and (2) the choice of conversion regime in terms of cutting cycle, thinning type and pine tree retention. Three simulated conversion strategies aim at the gradual removal of the pine canopy but differ in the spatial organisation of pine cuttings and hence result in different light conditions for regeneration. Only the directed gap creation strategy was able to maintain and increase birch admixture to the stand and to approach natural stand structural development. Simulation of 12 conversion regimes for the directed gap creation strategy indicated that thinning type (from above or from below), pine tree retention at final felling (50% of the standing volume or none) and cutting cycle (6, 9 or 12 years) all significantly influence stand structural development. These effects were clearest for oak development. Birch occurred in a few mixed clusters, but tended to disappear when longer cutting cycles were used. Based on a multi-criteria analysis we conclude that the optimal conversion regime – in which both stand productivity and biodiversity objectives can be combined – implies thinning from above, pine tree retention, and cutting cycles of 6 years. The conceptual validity of the model as well as the applicability of the results are discussed.     

基于土壤水分承载力的林分密度计算与调控——以六盘山华北落叶松人工林为例

立地水分条件决定的植被承载力是干旱缺水地区森林合理经营的重要依据。考虑到干旱缺水地区的森林蒸散耗水在水分输出中占据绝对主导地位,其大小直接与叶面积指数(LAI)相关,将林冠LAI在生长季一段时间内的最大值(LAImax)作为植被承载力(LAIc)的量化指标,利用冠层分析仪(LAI-2000),在六盘山香水河小流域和叠叠沟小流域的44个华北落叶松人工林样地,实测了冠层LAI的季节动态变化,研究了生长季内LAImax与林分断面积、郁闭度、平均树高、密度等常用林分结构指标的关系。结果表明:LAImax与林分不同结构指标均呈幂函数关系,其决定系数(R2)依次为0.84、0.82、0.56、0.47,说明能同时反映林分密度和树体大小的林分断面积与林冠LAI相关最紧密。将LAImax与林分断面积的幂函数关系嵌入了林分平均胸径与林分密度和林龄关系的模型,用以描述LAImax与林龄和密度的关系,并利用样地实测数据拟合了模型参数。拟合建立的模型对所有样地的LAImax的计算值与实测值的相对误差平均为8.6%(0%20.4%),能较好地描述LAI与林龄和密度的关系。利用此模型,进一步导出了能依据给定的LAIc,简捷计算出不同林龄时的可承载林分密度的模型,从而为基于立地水分植被承载力的林分密度管理和森林多功能经营等提供技术支持。     

基于竞争指数的杉木林分生长可视化模拟研究

以我国南方速生丰产林——杉木纯林为研究对象,采用改进过的Hegyi的简单竞争指数模型对杉木纯林间的竞争强度进行定量分析,并建立单木生长模型,再通过径阶模型将其应用于全林分,将单木生长模型研究扩展到全林分生长模型研究。同时,通过可视化模拟技术,为更加逼真的恢复和重建林分空间结构提供理论依据。     

Estimating biomass production and carbon storage for a fast-growing makino bamboo (Phyllostachys makinoi) plant based on the diameter distribution model

The purpose of this study was to estimate biomass and carbon storage for a fast-growing makino bamboo (Phyllostachys makinoi). The study site was located in central Taiwan and the makino bamboo plantation had a stand density of 21191 ± 4107 culms ha⁻¹. A diameter distribution model based on the Weibull distribution function and an allometric model was used to predict aboveground biomass and carbon storage. For an accurate estimation of carbon storage, the percent carbon content (PCC) in different sections of bamboo was determined by an elemental analyzer. The results showed that bamboos of all ages shared a similar trend, where culms displayed a carbon storage of 47.49–47.82%, branches 45.66–46.23%, and foliage 38.12–44.78%. In spite of the high density of the stand, the diameter distribution of makino bamboo approached a normal distribution and aboveground biomass and carbon storage were 105.33 and 49.81 Mg ha⁻¹, respectively. Moreover, one-fifth of older culms from the entire stand were removed by selective cutting. If the distribution of the yield of older culms per year was similar to the current stand, the yields of biomass and carbon per year would be 21.07 and 9.89 Mg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹. An astonishing productivity was observed, where every 5 years the yield of biomass and carbon was equal to the current status of stockings. Thus, makino bamboo has a high potential as a species used for carbon storage.     

蒙古栎林全林整体生长模型及其应用

利用汪清林业局1997年、2007年森林经理调查的61块蒙古栎林的固定样地数据建立了蒙古栎林全林整体模型。全林整体模型是一组非线性联立方程组,它由8个非线性模型组成。利用Forstat2.0软件中的"非线性误差变量联立方程组"方法求解模型参数,保证了模型的无偏性。"刀切法"检验结果表明各林分因子的平均相对误差和相对均方误差均在15%以下。应用全林整体模型可以进行不同初始条件林分的生长分析及制定不同立地条件的林分密度控制图,为蒙古栎林的经营提供参考。     

Prediction of annual tree growth and survival for thinned and unthinned even-aged maritime pine stands in Portugal from data with different time measurement intervals

An annual individual tree survival and growth model was developed for pure even-aged stands of maritime pine in Portugal, using a large data set containing irregularly time-spaced measurements and considering thinning effects. The model is distance-independent and is based on a function for diameter growth, a function for height growth and a survival function. Two approaches are compared for modeling annual tree growth. The first approach directly estimates a future diameter or height using well-known growth functions formulated in difference form. The second approach estimates diameter or height using a function in differential form estimating the increment over a year period. In both approaches, the function parameters were related to tree and stand variables reflecting the competition status of the tree as well as of a thinning response factor. Variable growth and survival rates were assumed in the modeling approaches. An iterative method was used to continuously update tree and stand attributes using a cut-off to convert the survival probability for a living or a dead tree. The individual tree diameter growth model and the survival probability model were fitted simultaneously using seemingly unrelated regression (SUR). Parameters of the height function were obtained separately as the number of observations for height was much lower than the number of observations for diameter, which may affect the statistical inference and the estimation of contemporaneous cross-equation error correlation inherent to the system of equations. PRESS residuals were used to evaluate the predictive performance of the diameter and the height growth functions. Additional statistics based in the log likelihood function and also in the survival probability were computed to evaluate the survival function. The second modeling approach, which integrates components of growth expansion and decline, performed slightly better than the first approach. A variable accounting for the thinning response that was tested proved to be significant for predicting diameter growth, even if the model already included competition-related explanatory variables, namely the basal area of trees larger than the subject tree. However, this thinning response factor was not significant for predicting height growth.     

A growth and self-thinning model for pure even-age stands: theory and applications

A self-thinning model is developed for fully stocked and under stocked pure even-aged stands. The self-thinning power law for fully stocked stands can be considered as a special case of this model. A stand growth model is developed by combining the self-thinning model with a basal-area increment model. This stand growth model can be used to estimate the average diameter and stand density at any given stand age with any initial stand conditions. The model was tested with yield table data. The model predictions were found to be agree with independent developed yield table data.     

Changes in size of soil seed bank in Robinia pseudoacacia L. (Leguminosae), an exotic tall tree species in Japan: Impacts of stand growth and apicultural utilization

This study examined the factors that influence the size of a soil seed bank in Robinia pseudoacacia stands. We proposed two hypotheses: the amount of buried seeds of R. pseudoacacia is proportional to stand biomass rather than stand age, and apicultural utilization influences the size of the soil seed bank. R. pseudoacacia generally produces seeds with various degrees of physical dormancy. In addition, this tree is short-lived, and fecundity declines after 30–40 years in relation to tree vigor. However, R. pseudoacacia is intensively used in apiculture as an important honey source, and supply of honeybees by beekeepers could influence seed crops. We investigated 25 plantations in Hokkaido (Central, Hidaka, and Oshima) and in Nagano, Japan, where many naturally regenerated R. pseudoacacia stands occur. We found great variation in the size of the soil seed bank among stands, ranging from 13,757 to 6.4 seeds m⁻² per plot. A generalized linear mixed model revealed that both basal area (BA_Rp) and apicultural utilization best explained the size of the soil seed bank. Both the positive effect of BA_Rp and small contribution of stand age to the model implied that the soil seed bank is transitory, and will not persist for very long time. The large contribution of apicultural utilization to the size of the soil seed bank implied pollinator limitation under natural conditions. R. pseudoacacia often has large flower crops, and native pollinators can not keep up with the demand for pollination. Thus, the supply of honeybees by beekeepers should improve the pollination success of R. pseudoacacia. From these results, we conclude that we must consider stand history with respect to apicultural utilization if the land is harvested or a stand declines.     

栎属树种生长模型研究进展

栎属树种是亚热带常绿阔叶林和温带落叶阔叶林的主要建群树种之一,分布范围极为广泛,在国内外被广泛应用于城市园林绿化、水源涵养林、水土保持林,也是重要的珍贵用材树种,同时其果实、栓皮等具有重要的工业和药用价值.研究栎林的生长过程,对其经营抚育决策具有重要的参考意义.文中对近年来国内外关于栎属树种的生长过程,特别是栎属树种生长模型的研究进行了综述,包括栎属树种全林分生长模型、单木生长模型、径阶分布模型等;阐述了栎属树种生长模型的研究现状及发展趋势,以期为栎林的经营抚育决策提供参考.     

Stand level estimation of root respiration for two subtropical plantations based on in situ measurement of specific root respiration

In this study, the stand level root respiration was estimated for two monoculture plantations: Acacia crassicarpa and Eucalyptus urophylla, based on in situ measurement of specific root respiration using simplified root chamber method. The respiration rates of fine roots (<5 mm) were significantly higher than those of coarse roots (>5 mm) for both A. crassicarpa and E. urophylla species. The root respiration of A. crassicarpa showed a clear seasonal pattern with a higher value in the wet season. For E. urophylla, the seasonal pattern was observed for fine roots but not for coarse roots. After determining the biomass of fine roots and coarse roots and their specific rates of respiration at different time points, root respiration at the stand level (R_a) was estimated using a direct up-scaling model. We found that the R_a accounted for 14% and 19% of total soil respiration (R_s) for A. crassicarpa and E. urophylla, respectively. The fine (R_Tf) and coarse (R_Tc) root respiration at the stand level accounted for about 47% and 53% of the R_a for A. crassicarpa, and accounted for 58% and 42% for E. urophylla. This suggests that coarse root respiration cannot be ignored when estimating the root respiration at the stand level. Our results showed that the Q₁₀ values were more accurate in representing the temperature dependence when the confounding effect of soil moisture was considered. This study introduces an alternative approach to estimate stand level root respiration, but its reliability is largely dependent on the accuracy of root biomass quantification.     

Characteristics of aspen infected with heartrot: Implications for cavity-nesting birds

Phellinus tremulae is an important fungal decay agent common to aspen and a critical component to the cavity-nesting bird complex found in western aspen stands. Little information exists on the conditions that facilitate infection and spread of P. tremulae in aspen forests. I used Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) data to explore the relationships of several tree and stand characteristics to the presence and frequency of P. tremulae in aspen measured across several western states of the United States. Results suggest a strong relationship between tree age, tree diameter, and compacted crown ratio with infection frequency in trees while stand purity, canopy cover and stand age had a positive relationship with the occurrence of P. tremulae in forest stands containing aspen. Logistic regression modeling identified stand age as the only variable that increased the odds of predicting infection at the stand-level while all tree-level variables were included in the tree model. Data also show that infection rates in the study area were lower than in other parts of aspen's range, and that average size of infected trees was smaller in the study area than those reported elsewhere. These results have important implications to management of aspen for wildlife, especially for birds that use decayed aspen for nesting.     

Stand development patterns as a consequence of the mortality in Austrocedrus chilensis forests

The forests of Austrocedrus chilensis (D. Don) Pic. Sern. et Bizarri in Argentina suffer decline and mortality throughout their natural distribution known as ‘mal del ciprés’. While several aspects of this, to date, temporally unpredictable process of overstory tree mortality have been the focus of detailed studies, there has been little research on tree growth and stand dynamics in symptomatic forests nor stand development patterns and prediction of future stand structure. We studied 12 stands in northern Patagonia (Province of Río Negro) using stand reconstruction studies to examine the changes in stand structure over time as a consequence of overstory mortality and the implications of these structural changes on the establishment and growth of the residual overstory. Dendrochronological analyses were used to reconstruct stand establishment and structure over time, and to study past diameter growth patterns. Mortality in A. chilensis forests was variable in time among stands. As expected, overstory mortality led to the successful establishment of trees in the understory in all stands; however, the response of residual overstory trees was variable. Understory establishment was low in some stands and high in others depending on the density of the overstory. While overstory trees in almost all stands released after the onset of the mortality, the pattern was not distinctive, varying in time, number and magnitude. In some stands, growth releases occurred after single or multiple tree deaths suggesting a relationship between processes, while in others this was not the case. Even when the patterns of recruitment in the understory and the overstory response varied greatly among stands, when examined together, some general patterns emerged. This study is the first to intensively explore the dynamics of A. chilensis forests affected by ‘mal del ciprés’. Additionally, this study showed that arbitrarily categorizing disturbances as discrete or chronic masks the true process of release of growing space and the resulting stand dynamics.     

Susceptibility of ponderosa pine, Pinus ponderosa (Dougl. ex Laws.), to mountain pine beetle, Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins,attack in uneven-aged stands in the Black Hills of South Dakota and Wyoming USA

Mountain pine beetle, Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins can cause extensive tree mortality in ponderosa pine, Pinus ponderosa Dougl. ex Laws., forests in the Black Hills of South Dakota and Wyoming. Most studies that have examined stand susceptibility to mountain pine beetle have been conducted in even-aged stands. Land managers increasingly practice uneven-aged management. We established 84 clusters of four plots, one where bark beetle-caused mortality was present and three uninfested plots. For all plot trees we recorded species, tree diameter, and crown position and for ponderosa pine whether they were killed or infested by mountain pine beetle. Elevation, slope, and aspect were also recorded. We used classification trees to model the likelihood of bark beetle attack based on plot and site variables. The probability of individual tree attack within the infested plots was estimated using logistic regression. Basal area of ponderosa pine in trees ≥25.4 cm in diameter at breast height (dbh) and ponderosa pine stand density index were correlated with mountain pine beetle attack. Regression trees and linear regression indicated that the amount of observed tree mortality was associated with initial ponderosa pine basal area and ponderosa pine stand density index. Infested stands had higher total and ponderosa pine basal area, total and ponderosa pine stand density index, and ponderosa pine basal area in trees ≥25.4 cm dbh. The probability of individual tree attack within infested plots was positively correlated with tree diameter with ponderosa pine stand density index modifying the relationship. A tree of a given size was more likely to be attacked in a denser stand. We conclude that stands with higher ponderosa pine basal area in trees >25.4 cm and ponderosa pine stand density index are correlated with an increased likelihood of mountain pine beetle bark beetle attack. Information form this study will help forest managers in the identification of uneven-aged stands with a higher likelihood of bark beetle attack and expected levels of tree mortality.     

Optimizing the joint production of timber and bilberries

Berries and mushrooms are increasingly appreciated products of Finnish forests. Therefore, there is a need to integrate them in silvicultural planning. Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.) is an economically important wild berry that is widely collected for household consumption and sale in North Karelia, Finland. In this study, bilberry yield models developed recently were included in a stand growth simulator and the joint production of timber and bilberry was optimized by maximizing soil expectation value (SEV) with 3% discounting rate, assuming that 75% of the bilberry yield is harvested. The effect of bilberry production on the optimal stand management increased with increasing bilberry price. With high bilberry prices (4–8 € kg⁻¹) it was optimal to manage the mixed stand of Scots pine, Norway spruce and birch, and the pure stand of Norway spruce so as to promote bilberry production. In the Scots pine stand, where bilberry yields are higher, bilberry production affected optimal stand management already with a price of 2 € kg⁻¹. Compared to timber production, joint production led to longer rotation lengths, higher thinning intensities, more frequent thinnings, and higher share of Scots pine in the mixed stand. The contribution of bilberries to the total SEV increased with increasing bilberry price and discounting rate. In the mixed stand and pine stand the SEV of bilberry production, calculated with 3% discounting rate, exceeded the SEV of timber production when bilberry price was 4 € kg⁻¹.With 4% discounting rate this happened already with bilberry price of 2 € kg⁻¹. It was concluded that forest management which promotes bilberry yields is the most profitable in pine stands where the potential bilberry yields are high.     

川西山地岷江冷杉风景林林分空间结构分析

应用传统林分结构因子配合混交度、角尺度、大小比数和开敞度4个林分空间结构参数,分析了川西山地退化风景林的空间结构特征.结果表明:林分结构较为简单,林分乔木层由7个树种组成,树种密度分布差异较大,树种结构相对单一;林分垂直结构特征明显,可分为3个林层,呈现出典型的复层林结构特征;林分平均混交度为0.46,以中强度混交单元为主,所占比例达61％;平均角尺度为0.483,属于随机分布状态;林木的胸径大小比数为0.286,有接近30％的林木处于优势状态;林分平均敞开度为0.309,林木生长空间基本充足.岷江冷杉种群优势度明显,群落处于相对稳定状态,其他5个树种由于株数较少,且径级分布不连续,自然更新较困难,经过一定时间的演化,将死亡,因此必须切实采取保护措施,保证其顺利生长,以保持物种多样性和群落的稳定性.     

Factors affecting the probability of windthrow at stand level as a result of Gudrun winter storm in southern Sweden

A storm in January 2005 in southern Sweden (Gudrun) caused large damage to forests, archaeological sites, buildings, power supply, telecommunications, and infrastructure. In this work, we analyzed the factors affecting the probability of windthrow at stand level (i.e. tree- and stand characteristics) in southern Sweden. We selected a sub-sample (1721 plots) of existing plots from the Swedish National Forest Inventory (inventoried in 2003 and 2004). To assess whether these plots had suffered damage or not, aerial photographs were taken in summer 2005. In order to analyze the effects of measured characteristics on damage, field data for each sub-sample plot were merged with the corresponding result of the aerial photo interpretation.We found that the plots damaged were typically well stocked mature stands, dominated by Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.), and often also recently thinned. Probability of damage increased with increase in stand height. In mixed stands, decrease of proportion of Norway spruce decreased the probability of damage. An admixture of deciduous trees, leafless in this winter storm, showed larger effect in this sense than that of Scots pine.     

Snow damage in lodgepole pine stands brought into thinning and fertilization regimes

Several heavy wet snowfalls occurred during 2007-2009 across a broad-scale thinning and fertilization experiment to bring overstocked juvenile lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. latifolia) in the foothills of Alberta, Canada into an intensive management regime. We examined the bending and breakage of trees in relation to thinning and fertilization and used a multimodel information-theoretic approach to model stand and tree level predictors of snow damage. Fertilized stands suffered the greatest amount of snow damage, and this was most noteworthy when stands were also thinned; here 22% (17% broken stems) of trees were damaged compared to 8% (4% broken stems) in the thinned and unfertilized stands. At the stand level, needle weight and crown cover were reliable predictors of snow damage. At the tree level, separate models were developed for each combination of thinning and fertilization. All models used total tree volume; usually the smaller trees in the stands were more susceptible to damage but in the thinned and fertilized stands larger but slender trees with large asymmetrical crowns tended to be damaged. Also, trees with lower total stem volume were more susceptible to damage. Only in the thinned and fertilized stands were variables related to crown shape and asymmetry important predictors of snow damage. We conclude that snow damage is an important agent for self-thinning in unthinned stands and fertilization tends to exacerbate damage because of increase in foliage size. In areas with regular occurrence of heavy snow, we do not recommend fertilization at the same time as thinning, as the larger and more economically important trees in the stand are at risk.     

Lessons from 72 years of monitoring a once-cut pine-hardwood stand on the Crossett Experimental Forest, Arkansas, U.S.A.

The Crossett Experimental Forest was established in 1934 to provide landowners in the Upper West Gulf Coastal Plain with reliable, science-based advice on how to manage their loblolly (Pinus taeda) and shortleaf (Pinus echinata) pine-dominated forests. A key component of this program was the establishment of an unmanaged control, currently known as the Russell R. Reynolds Research Natural Area (RRNA). Originally intended to show how the lack of regulation reduced sawtimber production compared to more intensively managed stands, the once-cut RRNA is now recognized as an increasingly scarce example of an undisturbed, mature pine-hardwood stand. This, in turn, has led to studies on forest succession, coarse woody debris, old-growth stand structure conditions, and biomass accumulation patterns. Long-term (72 years, to date) research has shown, as an example, that the RRNA has sustained >33 m² of basal area and over 240 Mg of aboveground live tree biomass per hectare for decades, values that are near the upper end of temperate forest ecosystems (outside of rainforests). These high levels are made possible by the abundance of large pines; however, pine mortality and natural successional patterns in this undisturbed stand will likely result in declining biomass in the near future. Additional work is possible regarding endangered species habitat and paleoclimate change, and there is potential for studies on invasive species effects on mature, unmanaged forests. Monitoring will continue indefinitely on the RRNA.     

小陇山油松天然林结构特征

利用固定样地每木定位调查数据和相关分析统计软件,对小陇山林区油松天然林的结构特征进行了分析。结果表明:油松天然林树种组成丰富,群落中共出现18个树种,油松占绝对优势,但样地树种隔离程度较低,属于弱度混交。油松天然林的直径分布为多峰山状曲线,油松种群的直径分布近似于正态分布,可用3参数Weibull分布拟合;树高随胸径的增大而增加,胸径与树高的关系可运用幂函数进行拟合。林分中油松个体的胸径、树高和冠幅的大小分化差异明显,整体上表现为中庸状态;油松天然林林木分布格局为随机分布,油松种群分布格局也为随机分布。     

杉木密度间伐试验林林分断面积生长效应

通过对26年生杉木密度试验林进行多次间伐后的结果进行比较研究,结果表明:(1)只要人工林立地条件相同,经过足够长的时间,林分断面积最终趋于一致,与是否间伐无关;(2)随间伐次数增加,获得的木材径阶也逐渐增大,未被间伐的保留木则多为大径材;(3)对于立地指数大于16的杉木宜林地,宜采用高密度造林、多次间伐的经营模式,以生产不同规格用材满足木材市场需求,还可提高林分累积断面积的生长量;对于立地指数小于14的杉木宜林地,应该采用稀植造林,以生产小、中径材为主;(4)应在立地条件好、低密度造林条件下培育大径材林木;(5)在立地指数小于14的杉木宜林地,间伐在促进林分断面积生长方面的贡献并不明显,对林分断面积生长起主要作用的因素是立地质量。