线粒体融合、分裂及其相关疾病的研究进展

近年来,有关线粒体融合和分裂机制的相关研究越来越多。线粒体是所有真核生物都不可或缺的双层膜细胞器,大多数细胞中线粒体是高度动态的,且通过不断地融合、分裂来维持动态平衡。线粒体外膜与内膜的融合分别由Mfn1、Mfn2与多种形式的OPA1调控;DRP1介导外膜分裂,内膜的分裂可能是由S-OPA1和MTP18介导。多种客观因素通过影响融合或分裂的程度,进而影响线粒体的融合与分裂,提高线粒体融合程度或降低线粒体分裂程度都将导致在细胞内形成个体大、数量少的线粒体;反之,将出现个体小、数量多的线粒体。可以据此特性间接检测某项影响线粒体形态学变化的因素,了解线粒体动态变化所涉及的蛋白,以及影响线粒体形态学的重要外部因素、线粒体相关疾病的发病原因。因此,作者在总结前人研究成果的基础上,针对线粒体融合与分裂、参与线粒体融合与分裂的相关蛋白及线粒体融合、分裂与疾病的发生进行了综述。     

哺乳动物线粒体动力学和氧化磷酸化研究进展

线粒体是一种存在于大多数细胞中具有双层膜结构和流动性的细胞器,是细胞进行有氧呼吸的主要场所,为细胞增殖、迁移和生存提供能量,被称为"能量工厂".线粒体在细胞死亡、细胞衰老、自噬、脂质合成、钙稳态以及铁平衡等生物过程中均发挥着重要作用,其功能主要由线粒体融合和分裂调节.线粒体融合将有助于ATP的产生,主要由线粒体融合蛋白...     

线粒体动力学平衡对心脏结构与功能的影响

心脏是一个高耗能、高耗氧的器官,其正常收缩及电信号的正常传导也需大量能量供应,因此心肌细胞含有大量线粒体。正常生理状态下,线粒体在细胞内的数量、形态和功能是相对稳定的。当机体内细胞能量产生不足或两个独立的线粒体存在不同的缺陷时,线粒体会受到Mfn1/2和OPA1的调控而发生融合,发生融合后线粒体基质含量相互混合形成一个功能完善的新的线粒体,此过程即为线粒体融合。为维持线粒体DNA及线粒体膜电位的稳定,线粒体受到Drp1及其受体的调控而发生分裂,分裂可使受损的线粒体DNA及去极化的线粒体膜在分裂时聚集到一个子线粒体中,并通过泛素化-蛋白酶系统或自噬作用消除,从而维持线粒体的正常功能。线粒体融合与分裂是一个连续波动的过程,被认为是维持线粒体和细胞正常功能和形态的关键过程。近年来研究发现,心肌细胞线粒体的融合与分裂失衡会引起自身形态和功能的紊乱,进而损害心脏结构和功能。因此,维持心肌细胞的稳态需要线粒体分裂和融合之间的动态平衡,而维持线粒体的动态平衡则需要介导线粒体融合与分裂相关的动力蛋白。作者对参与线粒体融合及分裂过程的关键蛋白的功能进行了综述,同时讨论了线粒体动力学平衡对心脏结构与功能的影响,以期为后期的研究提供一定理论参考。     

Research Progress on Mitochondrial Unfolded Protein Response

Mitochondria,as one of important intracellular organelles,regulates many intracellular signaling pathways,but environmental stress can cause accumulation of large amounts of misfolded or unfolded proteins,resulting in mitochondrial dysfunction.Current studies have revealed that a variety forms of signaling pathway from mitochondria to nucleus which can alleviate mitochondrial stress reaction and maintain mitochondrial homeostasis.In this paper,we will lay emphasis on that the molecular mechanisms of retrograde reactions in Saccharomyces cerevisiae,mitochondrial unfolded protein response in mammalian cells and C.elegans,and the interaction between mitochondrial unfolded protein response and mitophagy,innate immunity.     

线粒体未折叠蛋白反应的研究进展

线粒体是细胞内重要的细胞器之一,调控多种细胞内信号通路,然而环境应激会导致线粒体堆积并产生大量错误折叠或未折叠蛋白,造成线粒体功能紊乱。目前研究发现多种由线粒体到细胞核的信号传导通路能够缓解线粒体应激反应,维持线粒体的正常功能状态。本综述就酿酒酵母中的逆行反应,哺乳动物细胞和线虫中的线粒体未折叠蛋白的分子机制及线粒体未折叠蛋白反应与线粒体自噬、天然免疫的相互关系进行重点介绍。     

Bovine papillomavirus E5 oncoprotein upregulates parkin-dependent mitophagy in urothelial cells of cattle with spontaneous papillomavirus infection: A mechanistic study

This study aimed to provide mechanistic insights into mitophagy pathway associated with papillomavirus infection in urothelial cells of cattle. The elimination of mitochondria via autophagy, termed mitophagy, is an evolutionarily conserved mechanism for mitochondrial quality control and homeostasis. PINK1/parkin-mediated mitophagy, a ubiquitin-dependent selective autophagy of dysfunctional mitochondria, has been described here, for the first time, in urothelial cells from 25 bladder cancers in cattle infected by bovine papillomavirus (BPV). The expression of BPV-2 and BPV-13 E5 oncoprotein was detected by RT-PCR. Abnormal mitochondria delimited by expanding phagophores, were peculiar ultrastructural features of neoplastic urothelial cells. High levels of mitochondrial phosphorylated PINK1/parkin were observed in neoplastic urothelial cells infected by BPVs. Phosphoparkin interacted with mitofusin 2 (Mfn2) and ubiquitin (Ub), which confirmed that Mfn2 is a parkin receptor at the mitochondrial level, where parkin interacted also with Ub. Furthermore, parkin established a complex that was comprised of optineurin, p62, LC3, laforin, and embryonic stem cell-expressed Ras (ERAS), that interacted with BPV E5 oncoprotein, and Bag3, which, in turn, regulated the formation of a complex composed of Hpc70/Hsp70, CHIP, an HSC70-interacting E3 ubiquitin ligase. It is conceivable that ERAS is involved in mitophagosome maturation via phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) pathway. Bag3, in association with Hsc70/Hsp70, may contribute to the transport and degradation of CHIP-ubiquitinated cargo as this complex recognises ubiquitinated cargos and transports them to aggresomes to be degraded. Furthermore, Bag3 may be involved in mitophagosome formation as it interacted with synaptopodin 2, which is known to play a role in mitophagosome biogenesis.     

The Impact of Reproductive Technologies on Stallion Mitochondrial Function

The traditional assessment of stallion sperm comprises evaluation of sperm motility and membrane integrity and identification of abnormal morphology of the spermatozoa. More recently, the progressive introduction of flow cytometry is increasing the number of tests available. However, compared with other sperm structures and functions, the evaluation of mitochondria has received less attention in stallion andrology. Recent research indicates that sperm mitochondria are key structures in sperm function suffering major changes during biotechnological procedures such as cryopreservation. In this paper, mitochondrial structure and function will be reviewed in the stallion, when possible specific stallion studies will be discussed, and general findings on mammalian mitochondrial function will be argued when relevant. Especial emphasis will be put on their role as source of reactive oxygen species and in their role regulating sperm lifespan, a possible target to investigate with the aim to improve the quality of frozen–thawed stallion sperm. Later on, the impact of current sperm technologies, principally cryopreservation, on mitochondrial function will be discussed pointing out novel areas of research interest with high potential to improve current sperm technologies.     

Ultrastructure of schizonts in the liver of cats with experimentally induced cytauxzoonosis

Schizonts in the liver of 2 cats with cytauxzoonosis were studied by both light and electron microscopies. By light microscopy, the cytoplasm of macrophages in the sinusoids and small vascular channels contained schizonts with cytomeres or both cytomeres and mature merozoites. By electron microscopy, it was determined that schizogony occurred in 4 stages. The earliest stage was the presence of a multilobed structure containing finely granular protoplasm in the cytoplasm of the macrophage. The 2nd stage was an increase in height and number of the lobulations on the surface of the schizont. The 3rd stage involved the development of cytomeres and the appearance of a polar ring and rhoptries in everted sacculations on the cytomere membrane. Nuclei and mitochondria were incorporated into the sacculations before the release of mature merozoites into the host cell cytoplasm. In the last stage of schizogony, following massive merozoite formation and reduction in size of the schizont, residual nuclei divided by multiple fission. Each nuclear division became incorporated into a developing merozoite having preformed rhoptries, mitochondria, and a polar ring.     

Mdivi-1, mitochondrial fission inhibitor,impairs developmental competence and mitochondrial function of embryos and cells in pigs

Mitochondria are highly dynamic organelles that undergo constant fusion/fission as well as activities orchestrated by large dynamin-related GTPases. These dynamic mitochondrial processes influence mitochondrial morphology, size and function. Therefore, this study was conducted to evaluate the effects of mitochondrial fission inhibitor, mdivi-1, on developmental competence and mitochondrial function of porcine embryos and primary cells. Presumptive porcine embryos were cultured in PZM-3 medium supplemented with mdivi-1 (0, 10 and 50 μM) for 6 days. Porcine fibroblast cells were cultured in growth medium with mdivi-1 (0 and 50 μM) for 2 days. Our results showed that the rate of blastocyst production and cell growth in the mdivi-1 (50 μM) treated group was lower than that of the control group (P < 0.05). Moreover, loss of mitochondrial membrane potential in the mdivi-1 (50 μM) treated group was increased relative to the control group (P < 0.05). Subsequent evaluation revealed that the intracellular levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the apoptotic index were increased by mdivi-1 (50 μM) treatment (P < 0.05). Finally, the expression of mitochondrial fission-related protein (Drp 1) was lower in the embryos and cells in the mdivi-1-treated group than the control group. Taken together, these results indicate that mdivi-1 treatment may inhibit developmental competence and mitochondrial function in porcine embryos and primary cells.     

颗粒细胞凋亡影响家禽卵泡闭锁的研究进展

卵巢是家禽的重要繁殖器官,会产生大量卵泡,而卵泡在生长发育的各个阶段中都可能因为不同因素的调控而发生闭锁,最终导致繁殖性能衰退。颗粒细胞对卵泡的生长发育有重要调控作用,其凋亡会诱导卵泡发生闭锁。诱导颗粒细胞发生凋亡的因素较多,包括激素、细胞因子、氧化应激、线粒体及其他体外因素。颗粒细胞凋亡主要由线粒体途径导致,其涉及到半胱天冬酶（Caspase）家族参与,当线粒体裂解时会释放细胞色素C （Cyt-C）,随后形成凋亡小体激活Caspase-3和Caspase-8,最终激活Caspase-9导致颗粒细胞凋亡;当颗粒细胞发生凋亡,家禽体内卵泡丧失生物功能并且卵泡细胞之间的调控失衡,促使卵泡内卵母细胞和膜细胞凋亡,最终导致卵泡发生闭锁;颗粒细胞在存活状态下所分泌的生长因子、性腺类固醇、细胞因子能减少卵母细胞氧化损伤,防止细胞内活性氧（ROS）水平过高导致的线粒体DNA损伤,从而避免线粒体功能障碍而造成的颗粒细胞凋亡。作者从颗粒细胞凋亡及其影响因素、颗粒细胞凋亡和卵泡闭锁的关系、颗粒细胞凋亡对卵泡闭锁的影响3个方面进行阐述,以期为减少卵泡闭锁、提高家禽繁殖性能提供理论依据。     

Intraerythrocytic schizogony of Theileria sergenti in cattle

The characteristics of developing intraerythrocytic stages of T. sergenti were studied by light and transmission electron microscopy. The parasites with many ribosomes, acristate mitochondria, cytostome, and food vacuoles were morphologically regarded as the trophozoite stage. Although this type of parasites was frequently detected, intraerythrocytic merozoite stage with electron dense cisternae, rhoptries and small electron dense bodies was rarely observed in high parasitaemia. The intraerythrocytic stages of T. sergenti were divided mainly into four daughters by schizogony, and alternatively into two by binary fission. The daughter parasites in each division had the same ultrastructural features as of merozoites. As a result, it was suggested that T. sergenti trophozoites multiplied by schizogony to four organisms or by binary fission in the peripheral erythrocyte, and differentiated to the merozoites which acquired penetrating ability into the erythrocytes.     

DRP1 deficiency induces mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress-mediated apoptosis during porcine oocyte maturation

Background: Environmental pollution induces oxidative stress and apoptosis in mammalian oocytes, which can cause defects in reproduction;however, the molecular regulation of oxidative stress in oocytes is still largely unknown. In the present study, we identified that dynamin-related protein 1(DRP1) is an important molecule regulating oocyte mitochondrial function and preventing oxidative stress/apoptosis. DRP1 is a member of the dynamin GTPase superfamily localized at the mitochondrial-endoplasmic reticulum interaction site, where it regulates the fission of mitochondria and other related cellular processes.Results: Our results show that DRP1 was stably expressed during different stages of porcine oocyte meiosis, and might have a potential relationship with mitochondria as it exhibited similar localization. Loss of DRP1 activity caused failed porcine oocyte maturation and cumulus cell expansion, as well as defects in polar body extrusion.Further analysis indicated that a DRP1 deficiency caused mitochondrial dysfunction and induced oxidative stress,which was confirmed by increased reactive oxygen species levels. Moreover, the incidence of early apoptosis increased as detected by positive Annexin-V signaling.Conclusions: Taken together, our results indicate that DRP1 is essential for porcine oocyte maturation and that a DRP1 deficiency could induce mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, and apoptosis.     

Ultrastructural alterations of the myocardium of rats fed rapeseed oils.

Ultrastructural studies were conducted on the myocardium of rats fed corn oil, Tower RSO (0 . 88 per cent EA), 1788 RSO (3 . 6 per cent EA) and Target RSO (38 . 9 per cent EA) supplemented diets for 18 weeks. Cardiac myocytes of Tower RSO-fed rats showed some loosening of myofibrils and a slight increase in the number of mitochondria, few of which had lost their cristae. Large intravascular lipid droplets were observed in the myocardium of rats fed the 1788 RSO diet, as well as some small lipid droplets which were seen in close association with mitochondria. There was an apparent increase in the number of mitochondria of both normal and giant size. Many of the mitochondria exhibited distortion of shape and degeneration of cristae. The matrix of megamitochondria contained vesicles and electron-dense floccular inclusions and at times electron-lucent lipid-like material. The degenerative changes of mitochondria were most pronounced in the Target RSO group, where some megamitochondria showed a complete loss of cristae and a replacement of matrix with lipid-like material. These observations suggest that both intravascular lipid globules and the mitochondrial alterations are possible contributory factors involved in the development of cardiac lesions in RSO-fed rats.     

睾丸间质细胞线粒体调控睾酮合成的研究进展

睾丸间质细胞(Leydig cells, LCs)的主要功能是合成和分泌睾酮。在睾丸间质细胞内,以胆固醇为原料,位于线粒体外膜上的类固醇合成急性调节蛋白(steroidogenic acute regulatory protein, StAR)促进胆固醇向线粒体内膜转运,在线粒体内膜胆固醇侧链裂解酶(cholesterol side-chain cleavage cytochrome, P450scc)的催化下生成孕烯醇酮,而后通过光面内质网的羟基类固醇脱氢酶(3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, 3β-HSD)和转运蛋白(translocator protein, TSPO)的共同作用合成睾酮。因此,睾丸间质细胞合成和分泌睾酮与线粒体密切相关,线粒体结构和功能的完整性直接影响睾酮的生物合成,而位于线粒体上的StAR和P450scc是睾酮合成的关键调控因子。睾酮能够促进雄性生殖器官发育成熟并维持其功能,对促进蛋白质合成(如肌肉、骨骼及生殖器官的蛋白质合成)具有重要意义。近年来,通过维持线粒体结构完整性和改善线粒体氧化损伤、线粒体生物发生等功能进而促进睾酮的合...     

Influence of intergeneric/interspecies mitochondrial injection; parthenogenetic development of bovine oocytes after injection of mitochondria derived from somatic cells

Interspecies/intergeneric mitochondrial heteroplasmy can occur in interspecies/intergeneric hybrid embryos or following nuclear transfer. In the present study, intergeneric buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) mitochondria (WB-mt) or interspecies murine (Mus spretus) mitochondria (M-mt) were injected into bovine (Bos taurus) oocytes, and the subsequent embryonic development was characterized. Fibroblast mitochondria (WB-mt or M-mt) were microinjected into in vitro matured bovine oocytes followed by oocyte activation by a combination of electrical stimulation and 6-dimethylaminopurine treatment. After seven days of culture, embryo development was evaluated. The copy number of specific mtDNA populations (introduced and native mtDNA) from heteroplasmic oocytes was estimated using real-time PCR. The results illustrated that oocytes injected with either WB-mt or M-mt can develop to the blastocyst stage (20.6% and 19.6%). Cleavage division rates and development to the morula stage in oocytes injected with WB-mt were lower (76.2% and 45.9%, respectively) in comparison with uninjected oocytes (89.2% and 59.1%, respectively) (P<0.05). However, no differences were found in comparing M-mt injected oocytes and controls (P>0.05). An increase in bovine mtDNA copy number was observed at the expanded blastocyst stage of injected embryos (P<0.01), while the number of injected mtDNA was stable throughout development. This study demonstrates that interspecies/intergeneric mitochondrial injected bovine oocytes have the ability to develop to the blastocyst stage after parthenogenetic activation and that injected mtDNA was neither selectively destroyed nor enhanced through development. Moreover, injected intergeneric mitochondria had a demonstrated influence on bovine parthenogenetic development and mtDNA replication.     

哺乳动物精子线粒体研究进展

哺乳动物精子线粒体是维持精子活力的关键细胞器，对精子超激活运动、获能、顶体反应及受精等过程起到重要的调节作用。哺乳动物精子线粒体特有的形态特征与特异性酶异构体使其具有独特动力学和调节特性。精子线粒体中发生的氧化磷酸化过程是维持精子运动的重要途径，该过程产生的活性氧对精子功能的维持具有重要作用，但过量可能导致精子损伤，加速精子凋亡。哺乳动物精子质膜磷脂酰丝氨酸外翻和相关半胱氨酸蛋白酶激活级联反应引起细胞凋亡。区别于体细胞线粒体，精子线粒体钙信号可能并未参与精子固有的凋亡途径，作为衡量线粒体功能的敏感指标，其对线粒体膜电位和耗氧量的检测研究至关重要。哺乳动物精子线粒体具有自身的遗传系统，线粒体基因拷贝数可能作为无创衡量精子质量和受精能力的标记。作者重点阐述了哺乳动物精子线粒体的结构、线粒体鞘的形成及其生物功能，包括发生在线粒体中的氧化磷酸化过程、活性氧对精子的利与弊、线粒体参与钙稳态与细胞凋亡过程；介绍了线粒体膜电位和耗氧量的检测，简述了线粒体基因组的研究进展，为进一步探讨线粒体所涉及的精子功能机制奠定基础。     

MCU在低氧诱导肉鸡心肌细胞线粒体损伤中的作用

旨在探讨线粒体钙单向转运体（mitochondrial calcium uniporter,MCU）介导线粒体Ca²⁺转运是否参与低氧诱导的肉鸡心肌细胞线粒体损伤。试验通过分离白羽肉鸡鸡胚原代心肌细胞,在低氧条件下（3% O₂,5% CO₂,92% N₂）培养24、48、72 h,同时使用RU360抑制MCU的表达并在低氧条件下处理72 h后,使用流式细胞术检测细胞内Ca²⁺浓度、线粒体Ca²⁺浓度、线粒体活性氧水平和线粒体膜电位,检测MCU及其调节因子的mRNA和蛋白表达。结果显示,通过差速贴壁方法培养的心肌细胞纯度可达90%以上;低氧培养24 h,诱导心肌细胞MCU、MICU1 mRNA表达增加（P<0.05）,胞浆和线粒体内Ca²⁺浓度显著上升（P<0.05）,线粒体膜电位增加（P<0.05）;低氧培养48 h,诱导MCUR1和MICU1 mRNA表达减少（P<0.05）,细胞Ca²⁺浓度上升（P<0.05）;低氧培养72 h,诱导MCU mRNA表达增加（P<0.01）,细胞和线粒体内Ca²⁺增加（P<0.01）,线粒体膜电位下降（P<0.01）,活性氧增加（P<0.01）。低氧处理72 h后,与低氧组相比,RU360预处理组细胞和线粒体内Ca²⁺减少,线粒体膜电位上升,活性氧生成减少（P<0.01）,MCU mRNA表达减少（P<0.01）。结果表明：低氧诱导MCU上调导致线粒体钙超载,促使线粒体功能降低并发生损伤,进而心肌细胞发生损伤;抑制MCU表达可以减轻低氧诱导的心肌细胞线粒体钙超载,保护线粒体。     

Effects of aldehyde products of lipid oxidation on the color stability and metmyoglobin reducing ability of bovine Longissimus muscle

Lipid oxidation and metmyoglobin (MMb) reduction are popular issues in meat color research. This study evaluated the effects of aldehyde products, particularly 4‐hydroxy‐2‐nonenal (HNE) and hexenal, of lipid oxidation on the oxymyoglobin stability, mitochondrial membrane permeability, MMb reduction ability, electron transport chain‐mediated MMb reduction, and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide reduced form (NADH)‐dependent MMb reductase activity of bovine Longissimus muscle. The results indicated that HNE and hexenal accelerate the oxidation rate of oxymyoglobin, significantly increase the permeability of the mitochondrial membrane, and inhibit electron transport chain‐mediated MMb reduction. However, HNE and hexenal were found to exert no effect on the activity of NADH‐dependent MMb reductase. Thus, the aldehyde products of lipid oxidation could damage the microstructure of mitochondria and inhibit mitochondria‐mediated MMb reduction, which is disadvantageous in terms of the color stability of fresh bovine Longissimus muscle.     

Development of large and small blastomeres from 2‐cell embryos produced in vitro in pigs

In the present study, we examined the development to blastocysts of large and small blastomeres from unevenly cleaved 2‐cell embryos (uneven 2‐cell embryos) in pigs. Proportion of blastocysts derived from large blastomeres (52.8 ± 6.4%) was significantly higher (P < 0.05) compared with small ones (32.1 ± 4.6%). However, there were no differences in total cell number, inner cell mass (ICM) cell number and ICM/total cells ratio between them. Of 53 sister blastomere pairs in the same embryos examined there were 12 pairs (22.6%) in which both blastomeres developed to blastocysts, 16 pairs (30.2%) in which only large blastomeres developed to blastocysts, and five pairs (9.4%) in which only small blastomeres developed to blastocysts. Relative total amount of active mitochondria in small blastomeres were lower (P < 0.05) than that of large blastomeres and blastomeres from evenly cleaved 2‐cell embryos. However, there was no difference in relative density of active mitochondria in these three types of blastomeres. In conclusion, blastocysts derived from small and large blastomeres in uneven 2‐cell embryos had comparable quality in terms of cell number, ICM number, ICM/total cell ratio and distribution of active mitochondria. The results suggest that these blastomeres may contribute multiple offspring production in pigs.     

Cut-off points for aggreate herd testing in the presence of disease clustering and correlation of test errors

In order to test if disease is present in a large herd, an investigator will often subject only a small sample of animals to a fallible diagnostic test. The herd is declared positive for disease if the number of test-positive animals is greater than or equal to a previously chosen cut-off value. Such a test, called an aggregate test, has a sensitivity and specificity that depends on the sample size, the cut-off point and the sensitivity and specificity of the individual test. It also depends on the distribution of the disease among the herds being tested and on the fact that factors such as herd-level seropositivity may cause some herds to be more prone to testing errors than others. In this paper, we use the beta-binomial distribution to model all these factors and thereby calculate and tabulate aggregate test sensitivities and specificities under a variety of conditions. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve methodology permits the choice of optimum sample sizes and cut-off values. We also investigate the situation in which an investigator may be willing to miss detecting the disease if the prevalence in the herd is low. A compiled FORTRAN program for the calculation of aggregate test cut-off point properties, including positive and negative predictive values, is available from the authors.