Fingerprinting the sources of suspended sediment delivery to a large municipal drinking water reservoir: Falls Lake, Neuse River, North Carolina, USA

Purpose

We employ a geochemical-fingerprinting approach to estimate the source of suspended sediments collected from tributaries entering Falls Lake, a 50-km² drinking water reservoir on the Neuse River, North Carolina, USA. Many of the major tributaries to the lake are on North Carolina’s 303(d) list for impaired streams, and in 2008, the lake was added to that list because of high values of turbidity, likely sourced from tributary streams.

Materials and methods

Suspended sediments were collected from four streams with a time-integrated sampler during high-flow events. In addition, composite sediment samples representing potential sources were collected from stream banks, forests, pastures, construction sites, dirt and paved roads, and road cuts within tributary basins. Radiocarbon dating and magnetic susceptibility measurements were used to determine the origin of stream bank alluvial deposits. Sediment samples were analyzed for the concentrations of 55 elements and two radionuclides in order to identify tracers capable of distinguishing between potential sediment sources. The relative sediment source contributions were determined by applying a Monte Carlo simulation that parameterized the geochemical tracer data in a mixing model.

Results and discussion

Radiocarbon and magnetic susceptibility measurements confirmed the presence of “legacy” sediment in the Ellerbe and New Light Creek valley bottoms. Mixing model results demonstrate that stream bank erosion is the largest contributor to the suspended sediment load in New Light Creek (62%), Ellerbe Creek (58%), and Little Lick Creek (33%), and is the second largest contributor in Lick Creek (27%) behind construction sites (43%).

Conclusions

We find that stream bank erosion is the largest nonpoint source contributor to the suspended sediment load in three of the four catchments and is therefore a significant source of turbidity in Falls Lake. The presence of legacy sediment appears to coincide with increased contributions from stream bank erosion in Ellerbe and New Light creeks. Active construction sites and timber harvesting were also significant sources of suspended sediment. Water quality mitigation efforts need to consider nonpoint-source contributions from stream bank erosion of valley bottom sediments aggraded after European settlement.     

Quantification of seasonal sediment and phosphorus transport dynamics in an agricultural watershed using radiometric fingerprinting techniques

Purpose

Phosphorus (P) is a limiting nutrient for most US Midwestern aquatic systems and, therefore, increases of P, through point or non-point sources (NPS) of pollution such as agriculture, causes eutrophication. Identifying specific NPS contributions (e.g., upland vs. stream channels) for sediments and P is difficult due to the distributed nature of the pollution. Therefore, studies which link the spatial and temporal aspects of sediment and P transport in these systems can help better characterize the extent of NPS pollution.

Materials and methods

Our study used fingerprinting techniques to determine sources of sediments in an agricultural watershed (the North Fork of the Pheasant Branch watershed; 12.4 km² area) in Wisconsin, USA, during the spring, summer, and fall seasons of 2009. The primary sources considered were uplands (cultivated fields), stream bank, and streambed. The model used fallout radionuclides, ¹³⁷Cs, and ²¹⁰Pb_xs, along with total P to determine primary sediment sources. A shorter-lived fallout radioisotope, ⁷Be, was used to determine the sediment age and percent new sediments in streambed and suspended sediment samples (via the ⁷Be/²¹⁰Pb_xs ratio).

Results and discussion

Upland areas were the primary source of suspended sediments in the stream channels followed by stream banks. The sediment age and percent new sediment for the streambed and suspended sediments showed that the channel contained and transported newer (or more recently tagged with ⁷Be) sediments in the spring season (9–131 days sediment age), while relatively old sediments (165–318 days) were moving through the channel system during the fall season.

Conclusions

Upland areas are the major contributors to in-stream suspended sediments in this watershed. Sediment resuspension in stream channels could play an important role during the later part of the year. Best management practices should be targeted in the upland areas to reduce the export of sediments and sediment-bound P from agricultural watersheds.     

Toward generalizable sediment fingerprinting with tracers that are conservative and nonconservative over sediment routing timescales

Purpose

The science of sediment fingerprinting has been evolving rapidly over the past decade and is well poised to improve our understanding, not only of sediment sources, but also the routing of sediment through watersheds. Here, we discuss channel–floodplain processes that may convolute or modify the sediment fingerprinting signature of alluvial bank/floodplain sources and explore the use of nonconservative tracers for differentiating sediment derived from surface soil erosion from that of near-channel fluvial erosion.

Materials and methods

We use a mathematical model to demonstrate the theoretical effects of channel–floodplain exchange on conservative and nonconservative tracers. Then, we present flow, sediment gauging data, and geochemical measurements of long- (meteoric beryllium-10, ¹⁰Be) and short-lived (excess lead-210 and cesium-137, ²¹⁰Pb_ex and ¹³⁷Cs, respectively) radionuclide tracers from two study locations: one above, and the other below, a rapidly incising knick zone within the Maple River watershed, southern Minnesota.

Results and discussion

We demonstrate that measurements of ¹⁰Be, ²¹⁰Pb_ex, and ¹³⁷Cs associated with suspended sediment can be used to distinguish between the three primary sediment sources (agricultural uplands, bluffs, and banks) and estimate channel–floodplain exchange. We observe how the sediment sources systematically vary by location and change over the course of a single storm hydrograph. While sediment dynamics for any given event are not necessarily indicative of longer-term trends, the results are consistent with our geomorphic understanding of the system and longer-term observations of sediment dynamics. We advocate for future sediment fingerprinting studies to develop a geomorphic rationale to explain the distribution of the fingerprinting properties for any given study area, with the intent of developing a more generalizable, process-based fingerprinting approach.

Conclusions

We show that measurements of conservative and nonconservative tracers (e.g., long- and short-lived radionuclides) can provide spatially integrated, yet temporally discrete, insights to constrain sediment sources and channel–floodplain exchange at the river network-scale. Fingerprinting that utilizes nonconservative tracers requires that the nonconservative behavior is predictable and verifiable.     

Investigating the role of connectivity and scale in assessing the sources of sediment in an agricultural watershed in the Canadian prairies using sediment source fingerprinting

Purpose

Sediments adversely impact the quality of surface waters and are a significant source of contaminants, such as nutrients and pesticides, in agricultural watersheds. The development of effective beneficial management practices (BMPs) to minimize these impacts requires a sound understanding of the sources of sediments. The objectives of this study were: (1) to determine the sources of sediment in an agricultural watershed in the Canadian prairies using sediment source fingerprinting and; (2) to assess the results of the sediment fingerprinting study within the context of the scale of observation and the hydro-geomorphic connectivity of the watershed.

Materials and methods

Geochemical and radionuclide fingerprints were used to discriminate between the three potential sediment sources identified: topsoil, streambanks, and shale bedrock. Suspended and bed sediment samples were collected over the course of 3 years at six locations along the main stem of the creek, ranging from 3rd- (48 ha) to 7th-order (7441 ha) drainage basins. Four sediment fingerprint properties were selected that met statistical- and process-based selection criteria and the Stable Isotope Analysis in R model was used to estimate the proportion of sediment derived from each source at each sampling location in the watershed.

Results and discussion

The suspended sediments in the upper reaches were dominated by topsoil sources (64%–85%), whereas the suspended sediments moving through the lower reaches and being exported from the watershed had a higher proportion of sediment coming from streambank (32%–51%) and shale bedrock (29%–40%) sources. The switch in the sources of sediment between the headwaters and the watershed outlet are due to: (1) changes in sediment storage and connectivity; (2) a transition in the dominant erosion processes from topsoil to streambank erosion; and (3) the incision of the stream through the shale bedrock as it crosses the Manitoba Escarpment.

Conclusions

The results of this sediment fingerprinting study demonstrated that there was a switch in sediment sources between the headwaters and the outlet of the watershed. This research highlights the importance of the sampling location, in relation to the scale and geomorphic connectivity of the watershed, on the interpretation of results derived from the sediment fingerprinting technique, particularly in terms of developing suitable watershed BMPs to protect surface waters.     

A novel sediment fingerprinting method using filtration: application to the Mara River, East Africa

Purpose

Sediment fingerprinting with elemental tracers is widely used to identify sources of sediment to rivers. However, due to the need to isolate large amounts of suspended sediment, this approach can be difficult to implement in remote locations, such as the Mara River in Kenya, where high (and increasing) sediment loads are of concern.

Materials and methods

We report several innovations that allowed us to carry out sediment fingerprinting in a portion (>6,500 km²) of the Mara River Basin. First, we utilized sediment-laden filters (sediment mass ～0.1 g) for our river samples, rather than the traditional approach of extracting >1 g of sediment from large volumes of water. This allowed us to easily collect flow-weighted samples, and to process and analyze samples without access to centrifugation equipment. We carried out extensive quality control tests to ensure that we could reproducibly measure elemental concentrations of sediment trapped on filters. Second, we modified a readily available Bayesian inference mixing model (Stable Isotope Analysis in R) to create source signatures and to apportion downstream samples to sources. Third, we included hippo feces as a potential source, given the critical role that large wildlife plays in this ecosystem.

Results and discussion

We found that: (1) sediment captured by filtration can be digested and analyzed reproducibly and used in sediment fingerprinting; (2) our four sources (three geographic categories and hippo feces) were reasonably well-separated in their signatures; (3) the three sub-basins all contributed substantially to sediment loading in the Mara; and (4) hippo feces contributed a small, but measurable, proportion of sediment in this system.

Conclusions

Sediment-laden filters can be used successfully in identifying sediment sources through fingerprinting. The modified method of sediment fingerprinting should prove useful in other remote river basins. Our results support the hypothesis that the Upper Mara is important in supplying sediments to the river, while also highlighting the Talek sub-basin as a major contributor.     

Partitioning fine sediment loads in a headwater system with intensive agriculture

Purpose

This study was developed to improve understanding of the temporal variability of sediment delivery in a representative, intensively agricultural, headwater system of the U.S. Midwest by identifying the primary sediment source (i.e., uplands or channel banks) to the fine suspended sediment loads of three consecutive runoff events (with the third event being a flash flood) using naturally occurring radionuclides.

Materials and methods

Suspended sediment concentrations (C _s) from discrete and continuous sampling techniques agreed well despite differences in operating principles. The total sediment flux (Q _s) during each event was quantified over a 24-h period from the initiation of the rainfall using the following: (1) measured C _s and flow discharges (Q _w); (2) individual Q _w?CQ _s relationships for each event (herein called individual event relationships); and (3) a cumulative Q _w?CQ _s rating curve. The radionuclide tracers, beryllium-7 (⁷Be) and excess lead-210 (²¹⁰Pb_xs), were used with a simple two end-member mixing model to differentiate eroded upland surface soils and channel-derived sediments in the suspended loads of each event.

Results and discussion

Total load estimates from the measurement-based values and individual event relationships were similar, within 10?%, because they accounted for an observed non-linearity between C _s and Q _w (i.e., a clockwise hysteresis) during the events. The sediment rating curve assumed a linear relationship between C _s and Q _w and under-estimated the loads of the first two events while over-estimating the load of the flood event. The radionuclide partitioning quantified the proportion of eroded upland soils at 67?% for the first event, which was attributed to a ??first flush?? of readily available material from past events. For the subsequent and flood-event loads, 34?% and 21?% were respectively derived from the uplands, because less material was readily available for mobilization. Proportions are based on integrated samples for each event and are consistent with individual samples where available. During the flood event, stream bank mass failure was observed and bank erosion estimates from multiple methods compared favorably with the load results.

Conclusions

The radionuclide analysis showed decreasing proportions of eroded upland soils in the loads of the three successive events that was supported by observed clockwise hysteresis from source material exhaustion. Decreasing slopes observed in successive hysteresis plots for the events suggested that less material was readily available for mobilization following the first event flushing. The results of this study can assist watershed planners in identifying erosion-prone areas and determining optimal management strategies for sediment control.     

Fingerprinting sediment sources in the outlet reservoir of a hilly cultivated catchment in Tunisia

Purpose

Approximately 74 % of agricultural soils in Tunisia are affected by water erosion, leading to the siltation of numerous human-made reservoirs and therefore a loss of water storage capacity. The objective of this study was to propose a methodology for estimating the relative contributions of gully/channel bank erosion and surface topsoil erosion to the sediment accumulated in small reservoirs.

Materials and methods

We tested an approach based on the sediment fingerprinting technique for sediments collected from a reservoir (which has been in operation since 1994) at the outlet of a catchment (Kamech, 2.63 km²). Sampling concentrated on the soil surface (in both cropland and grassland), gullies and channel banks. A total of 17 sediment cores were collected along a longitudinal transect of the Kamech reservoir to investigate the origin of the sediment throughout the reservoir. Radionuclides (particularly caesium-137, ¹³⁷Cs) and nutrients (total phosphorus, total nitrogen and total organic carbon (TOC)) were analysed as potential tracers.

Results and discussion

The applications of a mixing model with ¹³⁷Cs alone or ¹³⁷Cs and TOC provided very similar results: The dominant source of sediment was surface erosion, which was responsible for 80 % of the total erosion within the Kamech catchment. Additionally, we showed that the analysis of a single composite core provided information on the sediment origin that was consistent with the analysis of all sediment layers in the core. We demonstrated the importance of the core sampling location within the reservoir for obtaining reliable information regarding sediment sources and the dominant erosion processes.

Conclusions

The dominance of surface erosion processes indicates that conservation farming practices are required to mitigate erosion in the agricultural Kamech catchment. Based on the results from 17 sediment cores, guidelines regarding the number and location of sampling cores to be collected for sediment fingerprinting are proposed. We showed that the collection of two cores limited the sediment source apportionment uncertainty due to the core sampling scheme to <10 %.     

Physical and maximum entropy models applied to inventories of hillslope sediment sources

Purpose

The purpose of our study was to identify major hillslope sediment sources in a partially urbanized coastal watershed supporting salmonid habitat and to evaluate the use of physical and maximum entropy models in predicting sites of greatest concern. Questions include when and where increased runoff from trail and unpaved road surfaces has influenced patterns of landslides and gullies to a greater degree than what would be expected from background processes and controls, such as precipitation intensity, vegetation, soils, and slope characteristics.

Materials and methods

San Pedro Creek Watershed, USA, provides habitat for Oncorhynchus mykiss despite 33% of the watershed being urbanized. The watershed drains steep hillslopes with a median slope of 21°, with the steepest slopes on the 578-m North Peak of Montara Mountain. We inventoried hillslope sediment sources based on field surveys and aerial photographic interpretation in 1941, 1955, 1975, 1983, and 1997. We interpreted causative factors using precipitation records, geologic and soil mapping, digital elevation derivatives, land cover, and road/trail network changes and applied a physical landslide susceptibility model (Stability Index Approach to Terrain Stability Hazard Mapping (SINMAP)) for hillslope stability and a maximum entropy model for assessing gully and landslide centroids.

Results and discussion

Maps of landslide and gullies reveal an association with land use changes over time. Agricultural land uses led to the development of extensive gullies in parts of the watershed, and some of these continue to contribute significant sediment to the stream system; others were built-over in residential developments. The most significant remaining gullies result from impervious runoff from roads built into steep hillslopes. Although the best single predictor of landslide susceptibility is physically modelled hillslope stability (SINMAP), slope equally contributed to multivariate MAXENT models (area under the receiver operator characteristic curve (AUC)?=?0.74 in 1941, 0.65 in 1975, and 0.79 in 1983). Other covariates in the maximum entropy models include plan curvature, trail distance in 1975, geology in 1983 (favoring colluvium), and vegetation.

Conclusions

Combining physical hillslope stability with a maximum entropy model appears promising, although overall slope angle also contributed equally. Landslides are episodic and linked to major precipitation/runoff events, such as ENSO events in 1962, 1972, and 1982, but road and trail development from 1955 to 1975 also contributed equally. As by count most gullies relate to earlier agricultural practices, they represent ongoing sediment sources.     

Determining the effects of wildfire on sediment sources using 137Cs and unsupported 210Pb: the role of landscape disturbances and driving forces

Purpose

Wildfires represent one of the major natural disturbances within forested landscapes and have potential implications for the quality and function of downstream aquatic ecosystems. This study aimed to determine if a wildfire in a mountainous, forested watershed in British Columbia, Canada, caused a change in the dominant sediment source in the immediate 1?C2?years following the wildfire, and if the sediment sources changed over the medium term (3?C7?years) as the landscape recovered.

Materials and methods

Source materials (surface soil, subsurface soil and channel bank material) and fluvial (suspended and channel bed) sediment samples were collected over the period 2004 to 2010 from a watershed burnt by a wildfire in 2003, and from an adjacent watershed that was not impacted by the fire. Samples were analysed for the fallout radionuclides (FRNs) caesium-137 (¹³⁷Cs) and unsupported lead-210 (²¹⁰Pb_un). An unmixing model was used to calculate the relative source contributions of the fluvial sediment samples.

Results and discussion

¹³⁷Cs and ²¹⁰Pb_un were concentrated in the upper layers of surface soils in both watersheds and were statistically different to concentrations in subsurface and channel bank material. In the burnt watershed, FRN concentrations were greatest in the ash layer. Sediment sources as determined by the unmixing model were 100?% subsurface/channel bank material in the unburnt watershed, while in the burnt watershed 8.5?±?2.5?% was derived from surface soils. In both watersheds, there were no major changes in the relative contributions from surface soil and from subsurface/channel bank material over the period 2004 to 2010. Thus, while the wildfire did cause a change in sediment sources, it was fairly subtle and did not conform to the effects following wildfire described for other studies in contrasting environments, which typically document a major increase in hillslope contributions relative to channel bank sources.

Conclusions

There was a limited response in terms of fine-grained sediment sources (and also sediment fluxes) in the burnt watershed. The reason for this muted response to a severe wildfire is likely to be the lack of precipitation, especially winter precipitation and the associated snowmelt, in the first year following the wildfire. Thus while the landscape was primed for erosion and sediment transport, the lack of a driving force meant that there was a limited immediate post-fire sediment response.     

Spectral fingerprinting: characterizing suspended sediment sources by the use of VNIR-SWIR spectral information

Purpose

Knowledge of sediment sources is a prerequisite for sustainable management practices and may furthermore improve our understanding of water and sediment fluxes. Investigations have shown that a number of characteristic soil properties can be used as “fingerprints” to trace back the sources of river sediments. Spectral properties have recently been successfully used as such characteristics in fingerprinting studies. Despite being less labour-intensive than geochemical analyses, for example, spectroscopy allows measurements of small amounts of sediment material (>60 mg), thus enabling inexpensive analyses even of intra-event variability. The focus of this study is on the examination of spectral properties of fluvial sediment samples to detect changes in source contributions, both between and within individual flood events.

Materials and methods

Sediment samples from the following three different origins were collected in the Isábena catchment (445 km²) in the central Spanish Pyrenees: (1) soil samples from the main potential source areas, (2) stored fine sediment from the channel bed once each season in 2011 and (3) suspended sediment samples during four flood events in autumn 2011 and spring 2012 at the catchment outlet as well as at several subcatchment outlets. All samples were dried and measured for spectral properties in the laboratory using an ASD spectroradiometer. Colour parameters and physically based features (e.g. organic carbon, iron oxide and clay content) were calculated from the spectra. Principal component analyses (PCA) were applied to all three types of samples to determine natural clustering of samples, and a mixing model was applied to determine source contributions.

Results and discussion

We found that fine sediment stored in the river bed seems to be mainly influenced by grain size and seasonal variability, while sampling location—and thus the effect of individual tributaries or subcatchments—seem to be of minor importance. Suspended sediment sources were found to vary between, as well as within, flood events; although badlands were always the major source. Forests and grasslands contributed little (<10 %), and other sources (not further determinable) contributed up to 40 %. The analyses further suggested that sediment sources differ among the subcatchments and that subcatchments comprising relatively large proportions of badlands contributed most to the four flood events analyzed.

Conclusions

Spectral fingerprints provide a rapid and cost-efficient alternative to conventional fingerprint properties. However, a combination of spectral and conventional fingerprint properties could potentially permit discrimination of a larger number of source types.     

Importance of bank erosion for sediment input, storage and export at the catchment scale

Purpose

The importance of bank erosion was quantified during three periods (October 2006–April 2007, May 2007–April 2008 and May 2008–April 2009) in the 486 km² catchment area of River Odense, Denmark. A catchment sediment budget was established including other sediment sources such as tile drains and surface runoff, in-channel and overbank sinks and storage and the resulting bed load and suspended sediment load exported from the catchment.

Material and methods

Bank erosion and sedimentation were measured using ca. 3,000 erosion pins established in 180 pin plots, each consisting of three vertical lines of pins. Thirty-six representative reaches, each with a length of 100 m, were selected by a stratified random procedure in GIS. Bed load and suspended sediment export from the catchment were measured using a bed load sampler and from continuous measurements of turbidity at the outlet gauging station.

Results and discussion

The gross sediment input from bank erosion during the three study periods amounted to 21,100–25,200 t in the River Odense catchment, which is considerably higher than the estimated input of sediment from tile drains and surface runoff, which amounted to 220–500 t and 0–100 t, respectively. The measured bed load (20–490 t) was five to 60 times lower than the suspended sediment export from the catchment (1,240–2,620 t) during the three study periods, with the largest difference occurring in the driest year. Sediment sinks and storage were of high importance for the catchment sediment budget as the measured in-channel storage of sediment on stream banks was as high as 16,200–20,100 t, and the overbank sediment sink was estimated at 360–3,100 t.

Conclusions

Bank erosion was the dominant sediment source (90–94 %) in the River Odense catchment during the three study years. In-channel and overbank sediment sinks and storage dominated the sediment budget as 79–94 % of the sediment input from all sources was not exported from the catchment during the three study years. Such a large attenuation of sediment in river channels and on floodplains is extremely important for fluvial habitats and ecology. Moreover, it has strong implications for attempts to document changes in sediment export following implementation of mitigation measures.     

Core-derived historical records of suspended sediment origin in a mesoscale mountainous catchment: the River Bléone, French Alps

Purpose

Quantifying suspended sediment fluxes and dynamics across mountains, and identifying the origin of sediment in severely eroded areas, are of primary importance for the management of water resources. This contribution aims to generalise previous results from suspended sediment fingerprinting obtained during 2007?C2009 in a mesoscale Alpine catchment (the Bléone River; 905?km²) in France, and to assess variability in sediment sources throughout the second half of the twentieth century.

Materials and methods

Sediment fingerprinting, based on elemental geochemistry and radionuclide measurements, was conducted on a sediment core collected in an alluvial floodplain at the basin outlet. This technique was combined with hydro-sedimentary time-series to reconstruct the origin of suspended sediment deposited at this location over the last 50?years.

Results and discussion

Interpretation of sedimentation based on historical hydrological databases corroborates core dating obtained with ¹³⁷Cs and ²¹⁰Pb_xs activity measurements. Black marls and (marly) limestone sources provided the main fraction of sediment throughout the sequence (40 and 22?%, respectively). However, we also found evidence for the occurrence of major floods carrying large quantities of sediment originating from Quaternary deposits and conglomerates (25 and 16?%, respectively). The variability of sediment sources throughout the sequence may reflect the spatial variability of rainfall within the catchment, which in turn reflects its origin. However, the relatively homogeneous sediment composition throughout the sequence confirms that core-derived information is representative of widespread flood events.

Conclusions

These results are consistent with those obtained in previous studies. They also outline the need to take into account the entire grain size range of fine sediment in order to provide an overall picture of sediment sources and transfers within highly erosive catchments. This study also emphasizes the importance of using archival data to validate the results of sediment fingerprinting studies conducted during short contemporary monitoring programmes, and to extend fingerprinting of sediment sources over longer time-scales which include large and widespread floods.     

The evolution of sediment source fingerprinting investigations in fluvial systems

Purpose

This contribution reviews the evolution of sediment source fingerprinting investigations since the beginning of such studies in the mid-1970s. Attention is directed to key advances and developments during this period, to the present status of source fingerprinting techniques and to the scope for future development.

Scope

An analysis of the number of papers reporting sediment source fingerprinting investigations or associated methodologies published annually since the mid-1970s to date indicates that the number of such papers has increased near exponentially. The key drivers behind the expansion of such work are examined and linked to both the progress of academic enquiry and the need to support the development of sediment management strategies aimed at countering environmental problems associated with fine sediment. Instead of providing a chronological review of the various advances and developments evidenced by the expanding literature, attention focuses on seven key areas of development which are seen as having together contributed to the current state of the art. These include the expanding range of fingerprint properties employed; the use of statistical tests to confirm the ability of particular fingerprint properties to discriminate between potential sources and to assist in the selection of the ‘best’ properties for inclusion in the final composite fingerprint; the use of numerical mixing models to obtain quantitative estimates of the relative contribution of different sources; recognition of the need to confirm the conservative behaviour of the sediment properties employed as fingerprints and to take account of contrasts in grain size composition and organic matter content between source material and target samples; extension of the approach to include a greater range of targets and potential sources; addition of a temporal dimension, in order to consider changes in sediment source through time; and recognition of the need to direct increased attention to the uncertainty associated with the results of such studies. At the present time, sediment source fingerprinting techniques can be seen as being in a transition from a scientific tool to an operational or management tool, but further development will be required before successful transition to the latter can be fully achieved.     

Lead mobilisation in the hyporheic zone and river bank sediments of a contaminated stream: contribution to diffuse pollution

Purpose

Past metal mining has left a legacy of highly contaminated sediments representing a significant diffuse source of contamination to water bodies in the UK and worldwide. This paper presents the results of an integrated approach used to define the role of sediments in contributing to the dissolved lead (Pb) loading to surface water in a mining-impacted catchment.

Materials and methods

The Rookhope Burn catchment, northern England, UK is affected by historical mining and processing of lead ore. Quantitative geochemical loading determinations, measurements of interstitial water chemistry from the stream hyporheic zone and inundation tests of bank sediments were carried out.

Results and discussion

High concentrations of Pb in the sediments from the catchment, identified from the British Geological Survey Geochemical Baseline Survey of the Environment (GBASE) data, demonstrate both the impact of mineralisation and widespread historical mining. The results from stream water show that the stream Pb load increased in the lower part of the catchment, without any apparent or significant contribution of point sources of Pb to the stream. Relative to surface water, the interstitial water of the hyporheic zone contained high concentrations of dissolved Pb in the lower reaches of the Rookhope Burn catchment, downstream of a former mine washing plant. Concentrations of 56???g?l^?1 of dissolved Pb in the interstitial water of the hyporheic zone may be a major cause of the deterioration of fish habitats in the stream and be regarded as a serious risk to the target of good ecological status as defined in the European Water Framework Directive. Inundation tests provide an indication that bank sediments have the potential to contribute dissolved Pb to surface water.

Conclusions

The determination of Pb in the interstitial water and in the inundation water, taken with water Pb mass balance and sediment Pb distribution maps at the catchment scale, implicate the contaminated sediments as a large Pb supply to surface water. Assessment of these diffuse contaminant sources is critical for the successful management of mining-impacted catchments.     

Quantifying the contributions of sediment, sediment-P and fertiliser-P from forested, cultivated and pasture areas at the landuse and catchment scale using fallout radionuclides and geochemistry

In this paper we use a combination of fallout nuclides and geochemistry to determine the contributions of sediment and sediment bound phosphorus (sed-P) from the major diffuse sources in the Bundella Creek catchment (8700 ha), NSW, Australia. Sources include surface erosion from cultivated, pasture and steep forested land as well as subsoil erosion from channels and gullies. We determine these contributions to the <10 μm fraction of deposited sediments. Concentrations of P were higher in the surface soils of each landuse than the underlying subsoils, and erosion from these contributed more to offsite sediment-P (60%) than did subsoil erosion at the individual landuse scale. At the catchment outlet, the amount of surface sediment eroded from cultivated lands was a factor of 84 higher than from pastures; the steep forested lands contributed 9 times more than pastures. Sed-P eroded from cultivated land was 42 times higher than from pasturelands; the forests were 8 times greater than from pastures. At the catchment outlet the largest contribution of sediment (70%) and sed-P (62%) was from subsoil erosion of gullies and channels within and between the different landuse areas. There was little contribution of sediment or sed-P at the catchment scale from surface erosion of pastures. Concentrations of P were highest in ‘storm event’ suspended sediment samples taken from the pasture and cultivated areas without gullies. In a suite of samples selected for their high P contents, fertiliser P was detected in two storm event suspended sediment samples and one deposited sediment sample, using the ratio of Nd/P. This suggests fertiliser P may be transported-off landsurfaces with sediments and contribute to offsite sediment-P concentrations in some situations. However, the fertiliser contributions were episodic and variable; and probably influenced by particle size selectivity as well as timing of fertiliser application with respect to size and occurrence of subsequent rainfall.     

Episodic acidification of a coastal plain stream in Virginia

This study investigates the episodic acidification of Reedy Creek, a wetland-influenced coastal plain stream near Richmond, Virginia. Primary objectives of the study were to quantify the episodic variability of acid-base chemistry in Reedy Creek, to examine the seasonal variability in episodic response and to explain the hydrological and geochemical factors that contribute to episodic acidification. Chemical response was similar in each of the seven storms examined, however, the ranges in concentrations observed were commonly greater in summer/fall storms than in winter/spring storms. An increase in SO _inf4 ^sup2? concentration with discharge was observed during all storms and peak concentration occurred at or near peak flow. Small increases in Mg²⁺, Ca²⁺, K⁺ concentrations and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) were observed during most storms. At the same time, ANC, Na⁺ and Cl^? concentrations usually decreased with increasing discharge. In summer/fall storms, the absolute increase in SO _inf4 ^sup2? concentration was one-third to 15 times the increase observed in winter/spring storms; the decrease in ANC during summer/fall storms was usually within the range of the decrease observed in winter/spring storms. In contrast, the decrease in Na⁺ and Cl^? concentrations during winter/spring storms was much greater than that observed during summer/fall storms. Data show that while base flow anion deficit was higher in summer/fall than in winter/spring, anion deficit decreased during most summer/fall storms. In contrast, base flow anion deficit was lower in spring and winter, but increased during winter/spring storms. Increased SO _inf4 ^sup2? concentration was the main cause of episodic acidification during storms at Reedy Creek, but increased anion deficit indicates organic acids may contribute to episodic acidification during winter/spring storms. Changes in SO _inf4 ^sup2? concentration coincident with the hydrograph rise indicate quick routing of water through the watershed. Saturation overland flow appears to be the likely mechanism by which solutes are transported to the stream during storm flow.     

Sediment and Phosphorus Export from a Lowland Catchment: Quantification of Sources

Storm event and annual export of suspended sediment (SS) and particulate phosphorus (PP) was measured during three hydrological years (June 1993 to May 1996) in Gelbæk stream, a Danish lowland stream draining a 11.6 km² arable catchment area. The contribution of subsurface drainage water, surface runoff and stream bank and bed erosion to catchment SS and PP losses was estimated using three different strategies: 1) Simultaneous and comparative monitoring of subsurface water. 2) A mass-balance and budget approach dividing the Gelbæk catchment into two subcatchments. 3) Application of the fingerprinting technique to single storm events. Subsurface drainage water proved to be a significant SS and PP source. Subsurface drainage water from half of the catchment area accounted for 9.8–15% of the total annual SS loss from the Gelbæ catchment and 9.6–18.2%, of the annual PP loss. The mass-balance and budget approach showed stream bank and bed erosion to be the major source of SS and PP in this channelized and highly managed lowland stream. These findings were consistent with the fact that the annual loss of SS and PP from an upper culverted stream sub-catchment was significantly lower than that estimated from a mass-balance for a lower sub-catchment with an open stream channel. Comparison of the tracer content (e.g.¹¹⁷Cs) of SS collected during four storm events with that of topsoil and subsoil using a simple mixing model revealed subsoil to be a major source of SS.     

A rapid spectral-reflectance-based fingerprinting approach for documenting suspended sediment sources during storm runoff events

Purpose  

This paper reports on the development of a rapid and simple spectra-reflectance-based fingerprinting approach for documenting suspended sediment sources during storm runoff events. The methodology was applied in the rural Wollefsbach catchment (4.4 km², NW Luxembourg).     

A streamlined approach for sediment source fingerprinting in a Southern Piedmont watershed, USA

Purpose

Sediment fingerprinting is a relatively recent research technique, capable of determining the origin of suspended sediment. In this study, we investigated sub-basins within a larger watershed we examined previously. The objectives were to determine if there was spatial variation in the origin of the suspended sediments and to test a streamlined fingerprinting approach which would reduce the cost, thereby paving the way for adoption by government agencies.

Materials and methods

Samples were collected from three tributaries, the outlet of the main stem, and at the middle of the main stem. Two methods to collect suspended sediment samples were compared: a mobile continuous-flow centrifuge and automated samplers. A relatively small initial tracer suite consisting of stable isotopes of nitrogen (N) and carbon (C) (¹⁵N and ¹³C), total N (TN), and total C (TC) was tested. Tracer concentrations were obtained through a single mass spectrometry analysis requiring <1 g of sediment.

Results and discussion

Multivariate discriminant analysis showed that three of the four tracers (δ ¹⁵N, δ ¹³C, and TC) from the initial pool were capable of accurate classification of the source samples. A multivariate mixing model showed that banks contributed the majority of sediment throughout all locations sampled and that in tributaries it was an even more dominant source. Despite variations in land use and stream order, the legacy sediments comprising the banks and floodplains were the main factor in impairment for suspended sediment. We found a small but statistically significant difference in δ ¹⁵N and δ ¹³C concentrations collected using automated samplers vs. the mobile centrifuge, but the effect on analysis of sediment source proportions was minimal.

Conclusions

The results of this study indicate that, at least in the study watershed, the majority of sediment in suspension was of streambank origin. A cost-effective tracer suite was identified as well as an attempt to make a streamlined approach to the technique. The streamlined approach cost much less ($7,550 US) than the conventional approach ($46,600 US) and should be suitable for total maximum daily loads analysis by state government agencies in the Southern Piedmont region of the USA.