Disturbance ecology benchmarks for Schima–Castanopsis forests in the central Himalayas

Roughly 2.8 billion people burn wood for basic energy needs, and traditional wood-fuel represents ~55% of global wood harvest. With increasing anthropogenic disturbance of natural forests, the “stability/fragility” paradigm of forest ecology is gradually being replaced by a “disturbance/recovery” paradigm. In order to understand effects of human-induced disturbances on natural forest ecosystems, and to plan for recovery of disturbed forests, appropriate metrics become necessary. Such metrics will aid in assessment and management of forests for carbon sequestration, biodiversity conservation, ecosystem health, and sustainability of natural resources. Such metrics are especially needed in “wood-fuel hotspots” of the world where over 275 million people live and harvest wood-fuel unsustainably. In this article, I provide metrics of human-induced disturbance in Nepal’s Schima–Castanopsis dominated forests and show relationships of disturbance intensity with forest structure and composition, site productivity potential, natural regeneration, and tree species diversity. Benchmark data were collected from survey of two protected reference forests and compared against three other forests representing a disturbance gradient. The Schima–Castanopsis association is a common dominant forest type in the warm temperate zone of the central Himalayas, and the findings from this study should have wider application.     

Do restoration fellings in protected forests increase the risk of bark beetle damages in adjacent forests? A case study from Fennoscandian boreal forest

Gap fellings are used to promote multi-cohort structures and to restore other natural forest structures and processes in protected areas that have been altered by anthropogenic activities. Gaps and felled trees may also provide breeding material for species that in high numbers can cause significant tree mortality, growth reduction and consequent economic losses in surrounding production forests. In this study, the effect of restoration gap fellings on feeding intensity of Tomicus spp. (pine shoot beetles) was evaluated by counting fallen pine shoots at different distances from gaps in a protected area in eastern Finland. Gap fellings had a clear effect on the feeding intensity of the beetles. The average density of fallen shoots m⁻² was 17 within a 10-m distance from gaps but decreased rapidly to around 4 at the distance of 50 m and beyond. The distance decay in shoot feeding is described well by the negative exponential models. Our results suggest that gap fellings have only a localized effect on shoot feeding by Tomicus in the forests surrounding the restoration gaps. In practical restoration, a buffer zone of 100–200 m around the gap fellings, as implemented here, is enough to minimize economically significant growth reduction in surrounding production forests. As shown in this study, restoration of natural forest structures and dynamics to protect biodiversity is not necessarily in conflict with forest hygiene objectives in production forests.     

The allocation of forestry land in Vietnam: did it cause the expansion of forests in the northwest?

Forests expanded rapidly in northwestern Vietnam in the 1990s. Forest expansion coincided with a new forest policy that mandated the devolution of forest management authority. A cornerstone of the new policy was the allocation of use rights for forestry land and trees to rural households. This paper examines to what extent the new forest policy contributed to the observed forest expansion. The findings of three village studies suggest that the new forest policy had minor effects on actual property rights, as villagers resisted its implementation. Instead, forests expanded, mainly due to the liberalization of agricultural output markets and availability of new technology. Changes in markets and technology motivated farmers to intensify crop production, reducing agricultural pressure on land. The research findings suggest the potential of market-based instruments and technology policy to facilitate forest regeneration. They also demonstrate the benefits of in-depth village studies for forest policy analysis, as it provides an integrated framework for assessing the relative effects of political, economic and technological changes on forests.     

Litterfall production in forests located at the Pre-delta area of the Paraná River (Argentina)

? The objectives of this study were to measure litterfall production of the four floodplain forest types and to analyze the relationship between litterfall (forest type, dominant species, and organic fractions) and flood pulses.

? Litterfall production was measured in two mono-specific stands of Salix humboldtiana or Tessaria integrifolia, respectively, and two mixed forests dominated by A. inundata or Nectandra angustifolia, during 1998 and the 2000–2002 periods.

? Mono-specific stands presented similar productivities (6.8 and 6.5 Mg dry matter ha^?1 y^?1, respectively), but differed significantly from the two other. The highest litterfall production was obtained during the large flood that occurred during 1998, decreasing later throughout the study period. Leaves were the dominant fraction of litterfall, followed by branches, flowers, and fruits.

? Only S. humboldtiana, T. integrifolia and A. inundata forests showed distinct patterns of litterfall production, depending on the flooding pulse. N. angustifolia did not show a distinctive litterfall pattern.

? The forests studied here presented patterns of litter production associated with the flood pulse according to its location along a topographic gradient, that controls the litter productivity of these forests.

     

Hidden in the woods? Meaning,determining, and practicing of ‘common welfare’ in the case of the German public forests

This article addresses the German debate on the issue of the common welfare designation of public forests. In the first part, drawing on two case studies, the political discourse on the issue is introduced. Two major competing ‘story lines’ can be made out that are both based on a long tradition of controversially discussed concepts of regulatory forest policy. While they both emphasise that common welfare services in forestry run counter to profit orientation, they fundamentally differ with regard to the consequences for forest policy, e.g., considering the degree of state intervention. Afterwards, an overview on the scientific debate on common welfare in the German context is given, and different concepts of common welfare determination are distinguished. Existing approaches of common welfare determination in German forest policy are related to these concepts and discussed. It is argued that the common welfare designation of the public forest is only insufficiently implemented by the actual governance arrangements. Based on this consideration, eventually, the implementation of a procedural concept of common welfare operationalisation in Germany’s public forests at the local level is proposed. While such a concept will not solve all complex problems related to the determination of common welfare in public forestry, it would notably contribute to a more operational definition of common welfare in public forestry and a more informed public debate on the issue.     

Plant diversity and phenological pattern in the montane wet temperate forests of the southern Western Ghats, India

Plants diversity and phenological pattern of the trees were monitored in a montane wet temperate forest (shola) in the     

Landscape pattern and fragmentation of natural secondary forests in the eastern mountainous region, northeast China： A case study of Mao＇ershan forests in Heilongjiang Province

Mao‘ershan region is a representative natural secondary forested region in the eastern mountainous region, northeast of China.Under the support of ARC/INFO and GIS technology, the landscape shape and fragment indices of Mao‘ershan experimental plantation were studied by combining the forest type map (1:10000), which was drawn from the aerial photographs (1999), field investigation (1999) and soil utilized map (1:10000). The results showed that the shape index and shape fragment index of natural landscape were higher than those of artificial landscapes and landscape patch fragment index depended on the number of patches. The natural forest had complex shape,suffering little jamming, and its shape index was higher than that of artificial forest. The manual controlled landscape (e.g. nursery, cropland and cutting blank) had regular shape, and its shape index was smaller. The fragment index of patches in natural forest was higher than that of artificial forest. The soft broad-leaved had the highest fragment index of patch amount.     

Changes of plant species composition in the Šumava spruce forests,SW Bohemia,since the 1970s

Vegetation dynamics of three forest communities were studied by resampling of relevés recorded in the 1970s in the Bohemian Forest (Šumava Mountains). Results of multivariate analysis (RDA) confirmed significant time changes in species composition of the climax (Calamagrostio-Piceetum) and waterlogged (Bazzanio-Piceetum) spruce forests. The changes in the sphagnum-rich waterlogged spruce forests (Sphagno-Piceetum) are close to the level of significance. The main vegetation changes are represented by a decrease in cover and/or frequency of hygrophilous or sciophilous species (e.g. Athyrium distentifolium, Oxalis acetosella) in climax spruce forests, and an abundant increase of species, indicating a preference to drier stands or better light conditions (e.g. Calamagrostis villosa, Vaccinium vitis-idaea or Avenella flexuosa), in waterlogged spruce forests. We also found a higher proportion of meadow species (e.g. Anthoxanthum odoratum, Festuca rubra or Luzula multiflora) in the newly recorded relevés from waterlogged forests. Analysis of species number per plot showed a remarkable shift to species-rich communities, especially in waterlogged stands.We tried to find the possible factors responsible for the observed changes. Unfortunately, only indirect measurement of environmental factors using Ellenberg’s indicator values could be used and did not yield sufficient results. Thus, the changes observed in climax spruce forests were ascribed mainly to a decrease in canopy cover, which was directly estimated. In waterlogged forests, a complex of several general factors, which influence the climax spruce forest, had to be taken into account, such as: (i) a decrease in atmospheric acidification during the last 10–15 years and subsequent improvement in soil conditions, especially in waterlogged stands; (ii) fragmentation of forests as a result of bark-beetles attack; (iii) climate warming documented by long-term local meteorological measurements.     

Recorded storm damage in Swedish forests 1901–2000

Severe storm damage has been a recurring problem to the Swedish forestry sector since, at least, the start of the19th century. This short communication presents a regionally resolved time-series of storm damage in Swedish forests during the last century. Data on storm damage have been gathered from the National Board of Forestry, the Regional Forestry Boards and scientific reports.Storm damage in Swedish forests seems to have increased during the century with a peak around the 1980s. In total 110 million m³ forest were destroyed by 77 recorded wind storms, with the severe storms in 1954 and 1969 accounting for 49% of the total damage. Reported damage in southern Sweden was normalised against the area of productive forest with trees older than 40 years, for inter annual comparisons. The geostrophic wind was used to describe the regional wind direction during the storm events. Most damage occurred during NNW to SW winds, and by winds from NNE. Apart from a possible shift in storm intensity and frequency, the increase in storm damaged trees can be attributed to changes in regeneration and thinning regimes, variations in storm damage reporting system, increase in forest cover and various damage to root architecture.     

Analysis of rural people’s attitude towards the management of tribal forests in South Africa

The management of forests for multiple purposes coupled with a varying socioeconomic profile of forest users can result in attitudinal differences towards forest management. This study examines the attitudes of rural people in South Africa towards the management of tribal forests. Attitude towards forest management was analysed with respect to five forest management objectives: 1, forest management for rural livelihood resilience to climate change; 2, forest management for reduction and management of forest fire risk; 3, forest management for sustainable forest-based livelihood; 4, forest management for household socioeconomic wellbeing; and 5, forest management for community-based climate change adaptation initiative. A household questionnaire survey was used to elicit information from 155 rural households using the proportionate random sampling procedure. Chi-square test was used to analyse data from the household survey. Factorial analysis was used to analyse variance in attitude towards forest management. The results showed that rural people generally have positive attitudes toward the management of tribal forests. Factor analysis isolated 2 major factors that explained 61% variance in attitude. Based on the findings we conclude that centralising forest management around the four management objectives (1, 3, 4 & 5) are likely to promote inclusive forest-based development in the study communities.     

Above ground biomass changes in the mountain birch forests and mountain heaths of Finnmarksvidda,northern Norway,in the period 1957–2006

Birch forests cover large areas of the northern Fennoscandia and the mountain birch (Betula pubescens ssp. czerepanovii) often forming the altitudinal and Arctic forest and tree lines. Interpreting the factors leading to landscape changes in mountain birch forest involves disturbance from anthropogenic use and climate as important factors. Using vegetation maps based on aerial photographs and satellite images from 7 years in combination with statistical data and ground estimation data of biomass in the period 1957–2006, we were able to assess the transitions among mountain heaths and different types of forest, the displacement of the altitudinal forest line and hence the change in biomass. The tree biomass as well as the growing stock for birch in Finnmarksvidda doubled in the period 1957–2006. Only lichen biomass has been significantly reduced in the period 1957 to 2000, with a subsequent slight increase of lichen biomass in the period 2000 to 2006. The results presented in this paper show significant and positive relationships between measured tree biomass and the increase in reindeer population in the period 1957–2006 in the study area. The hypothesis concerning the removal of the “lichen barrier effect” by heavy reindeer grazing which leads to increased success for birch seeds to germinate and sprout is therefore considered to be valid. However, also, climate change effects like increased precipitation, moth attacks, freezing and thawing events during winter and long-transported air pollution (e.g. nitrogen) may also have reinforced the changes in biomass. Climatic variables from regional weather stations for the period 1955–2006 did not, however, reveal any consistent change except for that the increased snow depth had a negative impact on the reindeer population while increase in snow depth hindering the reindeer in grazing seemed to have a positive impact on the lichen biomass. The ongoing development of increased forest cover and hence elevated forest line will lead to reduction of open habitats, and hence decreased grazing accessibility for the reindeer. The effects on forestry and carbon sequestration are also discussed, and here one of the suggestions is to let the northern birch forests act as carbon sinks contributing to the reduction of total net emission of CO₂ in the Nordic countries. Land use like reindeer husbandry has shown to strongly affect relationships between ecological processes like tree-growth and climate. Moreover, reindeer husbandry is such a widespread human activity in the arctic and boreal region that it might affect the global carbon budget.     

Similar carbon density of natural and planted forests in the Lüliang Mountains,China

Key message

The carbon density was not different between natural and planted forests, while the biomass carbon density was greater in natural forests than in planted forests. The difference is due primarily to the larger carbon density in the standing trees in natural forests compared to planted forests (at an average age of 50.6 and 15.7 years, respectively).

Context

Afforestation and reforestation programs might have noticeable effect on carbon stock. An integrated assessment of the forest carbon density in mountain regions is vital to evaluate the contribution of planted forests to carbon sequestration.

Aims

We compared the carbon densities and carbon stocks between natural and planted forests in the Lüliang Mountains region where large-scale afforestation and reforestation programs have been implemented. The introduced peashrubs (Caragana spp.), poplars (Populus spp.), black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), and native Chinese pine (Pinus tabulaeformis) were the four most common species in planted forests. In contrast, the deciduous oaks (Quercus spp.), Asia white birch (Betula platyphylla), wild poplar (Populus davidiana), and Chinese pine (Pinus tabulaeformis) dominated in natural forests.

Methods

Based on the forest inventory data of 3768 sample plots, we estimated the values of carbon densities and carbon stocks of natural and planted forests, and analyzed the spatial patterns of carbon densities and the effects of various factors on carbon densities using semivariogram analysis and nested analysis of variance (nested ANOVA), respectively.

Results

The carbon density was 123.7 and 119.7 Mg ha^?1 for natural and planted forests respectively. Natural and planted forests accounted for 54.8% and 45.2% of the total carbon stock over the whole region, respectively. The biomass carbon density (the above- and belowground biomass plus dead wood and litter biomass carbon density) was greater in natural forests than in planted forests (22.5 versus 13.2 Mg ha^?1). The higher (lower) spatial carbon density variability of natural (planted) forests was featured with a much smaller (larger) range value of 32.7 km (102.0 km) within which a strong (moderate) spatial autocorrelation could be observed. Stand age, stand density, annual mean temperature, and annual precipitation had statistically significant effects on the carbon density of all forests in the region.

Conclusion

No significant difference was detected in the carbon densities between natural and planted forests, and planted forests have made a substantial contribution to the total carbon stock of the region due to the implementation of large-scale afforestation and reforestation programs. The spatial patterns of carbon densities were clearly different between natural and planted forests. Stand age, stand density, temperature, and precipitation were important factors influencing forest carbon density over the mountain region.

     

Changed availability of urban fringe forests in Sweden in 2000–2010

Abstract

Although recreational pressure correlates to population size which in turn influences city growth, there is little evidence of how such processes of urban growth have affected the availability of urban fringe forests (forests with good recreational qualities located completely outside and up to 3 km from the city borders). Hence, the aim of this study was to examine consequences of urban growth on urban fringe forest availability in Sweden for the period 2000–2010. An overlay analysis was conducted in a GIS to identify urban fringe forests with good recreational qualities. A selection of Swedish cities with >2000 inhabitants (n = 428) was used along with a regional division to identify trends of cities in forest regions and in other regions. Results showed that the median availability of urban fringe forests had increased in all regions, both in absolute amounts and per 1000 inhabitants. A majority of the cities individually showed increased levels of urban fringe forests, despite contemporary urban growth. Availability had also decreased in about a third of the cities, most notably among those with greater population growth. Increasing populations and a future demand for recreation in proximate forests make further studies relevant, as other processes than urban growth have affected the availability of urban fringe forests.     

Born to be a forest owner? An empirical study of the aspects of psychological ownership in the context of inherited forests in Finland

Ownership is a multidimensional phenomenon that includes legal, social, and emotional aspects. In addition to legal aspects, the social and emotional aspects, “feelings of ownership,” potentially have behavioral effects. Nevertheless, these aspects are often overlooked in the research influencing the forest owners' behavior and thus their forest management decisions. This article examines how private forest owners with inherited forest holdings construct feelings of ownership toward their forests and how these constructions are reflected in their forest management decisions. Forest ownership is addressed through the theory of psychological ownership. On the basis of 15 thematic in-depth interviews, we suggest that a sense of identity and control, as dimensions of psychological ownership, can influence whether forest management decisions are guided by tradition, economic incentives, or responsibility toward property. Based on the results, a forest owner typology (restricted, indifferent, informed, and detached forest owners) was constructed, further enabling us to understand the differences among private forest owners and the roots of their forest management decisions. More generally, the study highlights the important role of emotions in forest management decisions.     

Tree microhabitats at the stand scale in montane beech–fir forests: practical information for taxa conservation in forestry

Recent studies have highlighted the key role of tree microhabitats in forest habitat complexity and have suggested using them as surrogates for local taxonomic biodiversity. However, few practical guidelines have been published to help foresters in managing microhabitats at the stand scale. This paper provides scientific background information to help to develop such guidelines. We surveyed trees in nine long-unmanaged beech–fir forests to model tree microhabitat occurrence and diversity at the tree level. Data were upscaled to a size range of tree cluster, i.e., at the tree population scale, by aggregating observed values of microhabitat occurrence. Accumulation curves were used to estimate the minimum number of trees required to make all the microhabitat types available. Two managed forests were then studied to quantify management effects on microhabitats. Diameter at breast height (dbh) and tree species, respectively, explained 16 and 10 % of the variations in the number of microhabitat-bearing trees, and 21 and 10 % for the number of microhabitat types. Beech trees and firs with a dbh of less than dbh 50 and 65 cm, respectively, did not ensure the provision of all microhabitat types. At least 20 ha of unmanaged forest were necessary to conserve all the microhabitat types. Current management practices have reduced the number of microhabitat-bearing beeches both by reducing the number of very large trees (dbh > 67.5 cm) and by tree selection within mid-size diameters. For fir, only the logging of very large trees (dbh > 62.5 cm) negatively affected microhabitats. These figures may inspire guidelines for conservation-friendly forestry.     

Evaluation of regeneration potential of Pinus koraiensis in mixed pine-hardwood forests in the Xiao Xing’an Mountains, China

Large scale harvest of Korean pine(Pinus koraiensis) seeds as a food product in the mixed Korean pine-hardwood forest of northeastern China poses a serious threat to the sustainability and restoration of this endangered regional ecosystem.Seed collection over past decades greatly reduced the seed bank and subsequent seedling and sapling recruitment,and impacting a wide array of granivorous animals that rely on the pine seeds.We surveyed Korean pine seeds,including solid seeds(SS),insect consumed seeds(ICS) and other(animal) consumed(OCS) kernels,of the seed bank(forest floor and the top 10 cm of mineral soil),the seedlings and saplings from 1 m 2 sample plots in five forest types in Liangshui Nature Reserve(LNR) of the southern Xiao Xing’an Mountains in northeastern China to provide accurate information for assessing the Korean pine regeneration potential.The average number of pine seeds in the seed bank were 11.2 seeds/m 2,9.1 seeds/m 2,4.6 seeds/m 2,1.1 seeds/m 2,and 0.2 seeds/m 2 in Korean pine-basswood forest,mixed Korean pine-hardwood forest,mixed conifer-hardwood forest,white birch forests,and oak forests,respectively.In the first three forest types,percentages of SS(potentially viable seeds) were 11.2%,3.5% and 27.8%,respectively.The percentages of ICS(not viable seeds) were consistent at around 35%.The higher but variable percentages of OCS(not viable seeds) indicated high seed predation in these forests.Compared with other studies,we recorded higher percentages of seed damage,probably due to our survey approach and the increased depth of seed bank sampled in our study.Depletion of pine seeds in the seed bank greatly reduced seedling and sapling recruitment.Densities of pine seedlings varied from about 180 trees/ha in the mixed Korean pine-hardwood forest to about 5,400 trees/ha in the mixed conifer-hardwood forests and showed a high degree of spatial variation.Saplings were rare in the mixed Korean pine-hardwood forest,but ranged in the thousands in other forests.Large scale pine seed harvest has seriously threatened the sustainability of the mixed Korean pine-hardwood forest ecosystem.Scaling down the seed harvest or supplemental planting of pine saplings are urgently needed to maintain the health of the existing Korean pine forests and to restore this endangered ecosystem.     

Remunerating nature conservation in central European forests: scope and limits of the Faustmann–Hartman approach

The elementary method based on Faustmann's analysis and extended by Hartman is used for the design of payment schemes inciting forest owners to manage their assets in a way more conducive to nature conservation. It is not aimed at extending the elementary theory but rather, to elicit its most important empirical implications. It is taken for granted that the conservation benefit of a forest increases linearly with time. Linearity is not only in sufficient agreement with ecological facts but also makes it easy to derive important conditions, in particular the minimal payment inducing owners never to harvest. The theory is applied to a German beech forest model (Fagus sylvatica). It is found that inciting owners to delay cutting cannot be recommended. The instrument should be used for the objective of abandoning cutting altogether which, however, demands that the conservation objective, as expressed in its present value, is granted a very high value by society. In the sequel, various aspects as to the scheme's practicability are discussed, including the need to capitalise annual payments into one single sum, the choice of a discount rate, the allowance for current costs in forestry and the likely approval of payments in the political arena. Although the discussion identifies several obstacles to the practical application of the scheme, there appears to exist no principal reason why a conservation policy based on the Faustmann–Hartman approach should not work in forestry.     

Soil functional indicators in mixed beech forests are clearly species-specific

Beech stands are considered part of the ancient forest ecosystems in the northern hemisphere.In mixed stands in beach forest ecosystems,the type of associated tree species can significantly affect soil functions,but their influence on microbial activity,nutrient cycling and belowground properties is unknown.Here,we considered forest patches in northern Iran that are dominated by different tree species:Fagus orientalis Lip sky,Quercus castaneifolia C.A.Mey.,Pterocarya fraxinifolia(Lam.),Tilia beg...     

Forest owners’ views on storing carbon in their forests

Given the high percentage of private forest ownership in Finland, family forest owners have an important role in mitigating climate change. The study aims to explore Finnish family forest owners’ perceptions on climate change and their opinions on increasing carbon storage in their forests through new kinds of management activities and policy instruments. The data consists of thematic face-to-face interviews among Helsinki metropolitan area forest owners (n?=?15). These city-dwellers were expected to be more aware of and more interested in climate change mitigation than forest owners at large. Forests as carbon fluxes appear to be a familiar concept to most of the forest owners, but carbon storage in their own forests was a new idea. Four types concerning forest owners’ view on storing carbon in their forests could be identified. The Pioneer utilizes forestland versatilely and has already adopted practices to mitigate climate change. The Potential is concerned about climate change, but this is not seen in forest practices applied. The Resistant is generally aware of climate change but sees a fundamental contradiction between carbon storing and wood production. The Indifferent Owner believes that climate change is taking place but does not acknowledge a relation between climate change and the owner’s forests.