Starchy legumes in human nutrition,health and culture

Starchy legumes have been consumed by humans since the earliest practice of agriculture and have been ascribed medicinal and cultural as well as nutritional roles. They are an important component of the diet in the developing countries in Africa, Latin America, and Asia where they are especially valuable as a source of dietary protein to complement cereals, starchy roots and tubers. Legumes contain 20–30% protein which is generally rich in lysine and limiting in sulfur amino acids. The nutritional quality of legume protein is limited by the presence of both heat labile and heat stable antinutrients as well as an inherent resistance to digestion of the major globulins. In addition to its nutritional impact, legume protein has been shown to reduce plasma low density lipoprotein when consumed. Legume starch is more slowly digested than starch from cereals and tubers and produces less abrupt changes in plasma glucose and insulin upon ingestion. Starchy legumes are also valuable sources of dietary fiber as well as thiamin and riboflavin. Starchy legumes are a valuable component of a prudent diet, but their consumption is constrained by low yields, the lack of convenient food applications, and flatulence.     

Eiweiß und Aminosäuren in Nahrungspflanzen

In order to get a sufficient survey we subdivided the food plants as follows:

1. Leafy Vegetables
2. Tuber and Root Vegetables
3. Potatoes
4. Onions and Leek
5. Stalky Vegetables
6. Sprout Vegetables
7. Flowerlike Vegetables
8. Fruit Vegetables
9. Pulses
10. Cereals
11. Fruit

The single groups are discussed with regard to their contents of amino acids. They are compared with the pattern of amino acids found in mothers' milk, so allowing to deduce typical patterns for each group. In this connection it is of great interest that legumes alter the pattern with the stage of ripening. With a decrease in contents of lysine a tendency of increase in methionine and tryptophane is observed. This is distinctly marked in comparing proteins of legumes with those of cereals. The composition of a ‘typical plant protein’ has been calculated considering the whole analytical material. This in turn has been related to the use of consumption in the BRD considering also the share of proteins delivered from the different plant groups. This protein shows in comparison with that of mothers' milk a very favorable composition (EAA-Index (9 EAA) according to Oser = 81) and confirmed the statement being of good use for human nutrition.     

Use of tetrahymena pyriformis to evaluate the relative nutritive value (RNV) of some crop cultivars and processed cereals

Tetrahymena pyriformis was used to compare the relative nutritive value (RNV) of various components of wheat and rye bread. Rye bread crumbs were superior to those of wheat crumbs. The crust of both breads had considerably reduced RNV. When applied as an intervarietal screening tool in barley, this organism failed to detect small differences in the lysine content. Gross differences among various cereals and legumes could be detected. A colorimetric method for biomass measurement was compared with the direct microscope counting and found to be superior. The merits and limitations ofT. pyriformis as a test organism in the RNV determination are discussed.     

Use of two fungal strains as test organisms for the evaluation of relative nutritive value in cereals and legumes

Two fungal strains were used to evaluate the relative nutritive value of various cereals and legumes.Aspergillus flavus Link ex Fr., isolated from spoiling bread crumbs, was tested on two sets of samples at equal nitrogen level. One comprised of 4 cereals and 19 legumes and the second included 25 barley strains, ranging in protein content from 7.7 to 17.8 percent. Total dry weight of the mycelium produced was used was used as the index of biomass.A. flavus was able to differentiate between different species of grain and also between different varieties within a species. A lysine dependent strain ofNeurospora crassa Shear and Dodge, was used to test 25 barley strain. The milled samples were administered, at equal nitrogen level with excess of starch and vitamins. In both the fungi biomass was positively correlated with protein quality.     

Digestibility of legumes and available lysine content

While legumes are regarded as good sources of protein they are poorly digested so improved digestibility would be a desirable objective in a breeding programme. From the point of view of protein quality they are limited by the sulphur amino acids (SAA) so an increase in these is a primary nutritional objective of a breeding programme and their lysine content is regarded as being of secondary importance. However, some traditional methods of preparation are far more severe than that necessary to cook the food and may result in loss of lysine. These two problems are being investigated. (1) True digestibility of the nitrogen (TD-N) of cooked, white haricot beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) was measured by feeding to rats at 20, 40 and 80% levels in the diet (5, 10 and 20% protein), for 10 days periods when 23 days old and again when 63 days old. TD-N at the three dietary levels was 80, 74 and 67% for the young animals and 63, 55 and 51% when more mature. True digestibility of dry matter (TD-DM) was very much higher at 97, 92 and 83% for younger and 95, 90 and 81% for older animals. The considerable difference between TD-N and TD-DM together with the apparently greater TD-N by the younger rats suggests that the extra faecal N does not come from the undigested food but possibly from residues of digestive juices. Results suggest that it is necessary to standardise the conditions for measuring TD. Five legumes were boiled for 2 h and 8 h; available lysine fell by 5–10% after 2 h and by 15–20% after 8 h. Improvement in flavour appeared to parallel development of the Maillard reaction and loss of available lysine. SAA were still limiting so that NPU does not reveal loss of available lysine. However, in diets where legumes are used to supplement cereals in such proportions that lysine is limiting this loss may become of nutritional importance.     

Variability in the concentration of three heat stable proteinase inhibitor proteins in potato tubers

The variability of three well characterized proteinase inhibitors, Inhibitor I, molecular weight 39,000, Inhibitor II, molecular weight 21,000, and Carboxypeptidase Inhibitor, molecular weight 4,100, were determined in apical cortical tissues of individual potato tubers of the Russet Burbank variety. The three inhibitors varied within ± 20% among sixty-five tubers and cumulatively represented about 7% of the total soluble proteins. The inhibitors were highly variable among tubers of 106 clones from randomly chosen varieties. Inhibitor I varied about twelve-fold (60 to 745 μg/ml juice), and Inhibitor II varied about seven-fold (158 to 1,025 μg/ml juice). Carboxypeptidase Inhibitor varied from as low as zero (seven varieties) to over 850 μg/ml tuber juice. With 80 tubers from fourteen varieties of potatoes, a positivecorrelation was found between the concentrations of Inhibitor I and Inhibitor II and total soluble protein. Carboxypeptidase Inhibitor did not correlate well with total soluble protein. The positive correlations of Inhibitors I and II (a correlation coefficient of 0.70) with total soluble protein indicated that the proteinase inhibitors may be excellent markers for genetic studies for selecting high protein potato tuber varieties.     

Properties of lupine proteins relevant to their nutritional performance

Composition, solubility, bound sugar content and quality, subunit composition and structure of the storage proteins of seeds ofLupinus albus are discussed. Aminoacid composition is also given for each protein, the various protein classes and the whole flour. These data allow for the characterization of the molecules of the various storage proteins and their contributions to the nutritional properties of the seed.In vitro digestibility (by mammalian endopeptidases) is reported and is less than for animal proteins. Possible causes, at the molecular level, for this behaviour and possible means to overcome these effects are examined. The relationships between the above data are considered in view of the nutritional performance of the proteins and of the genetical, agronomic and technological approaches most suited to improve the nutritional quality of lupine seeds as a protein source.     

Nutritional quality of the protein in quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa,Willd) seeds

The nutritional quality of protein in quinoa seeds has been determined by amino acid assay and by animal feeding experiments. The amino acid composition of the protein in raw quinoa and washed quinoa show similar pattern. The first limiting amino acids were the aromatic amino acids thyrosine + phenylalanine giving a chemical score of 86 for protein in raw quinoa and 85 for protein in washed quinoa. Threonine was the next limiting amino acid followed by lysine. The amount of lysine and sulfur amino acids (methionine + cystine) was relatively high. In general, the content of essential amino acids in quinoa is higher than in common cereals. The animal experiments showed NPU values of 75.7, BV of 82.6 and TD value of 91.7 for the protein in raw quinoa. Results of the in-vitro enzymatic methods showed that the digestibility of the protein in quinoa is comparable to that of other high quality food proteins. The corresponding experiments carried out with samples of guinoa seeds, which have been processed to remove the saponins, showed that, the saponins do not exert any negative effect on the nutritive quality of the protein.     

Improving the Nutritional Value of Cool Season Food Legumes

Abstract

Cool season food legumes such as pea, lentil, chickpea, faba bean, grasspea and lupin have been consumed in animal and human diets since domestication and have been cultivated for over 9000 years. Due to their nutritional value they continue to make up a substantial portion of diets in developing countries worldwide. Seeds are composed of protein, starch, fiber, lipids, vitamins and minerals as well as several antinutritional compounds. Protein and starch combined account for 50-75% of seed mass. Similar amounts of protein and starch are present in each species and range from 15-40% and 35-53%, respectively. Fiber accounts for 1-22% of the seed mass. Chickpea is quite variable for fiber content, but faba bean, grasspea and lupin all contain approximately 15% fiber while pea and lentil have substantially lower levels, 4-8%. Protein composition is deficient in the sulfur amino acids, methionine and cysteine, but contains adequate levels of lysine making the legumes an excellent dietary complement to cereals. As a result these crops have been produced and consumed together for centuries. Despite the high nutritional value of these crops, they contain several antinutritional factors (ANF) such as phytic acid, protease inhibitors, heamagglutinins, tannins, alkaloids, raffinose oligosaccharides and antigenicity factors at relatively low levels. These compounds serve important roles in pest resistance or plant survival, but reduce digestibility and palatability when consumed. Genetic analysis of the antinutritional factors has shown that many of the ANFs are controlled by single genes and has allowed geneticists to reduce accumulation of the ANFs, thereby improving nutritional value. Legumes will continue to serve as the primary source of protein in areas of the world where meat is not readily available. Continued research toward a better understanding of the genetic control of legume quality will give geneticists the opportunity to improve the dietary value of these crops.     

Optimization of the solid state fermentation process to obtain tempeh from hardened chickpeas (Cicer arietinum L.)

Solid state fermentation (SSF) represents a technological alternative for a great variety of cereals and legumes, orcombination of them, to improve their nutritional quality and to obtain edible products with palatable sensorial characteristics. The objective of this work was to find the best conditions of fermentation temperature and time to obtain tempeh from hardened chickpeas (Cicer arietinum L.) applying SSF. Response surface methodology(RSM) was applied over three response variables (phytic acid, in vitro protein digestibility and available lysine) to find best conditions of fermentation to carry out the process. A central composite experimental design with two factors [X₁ = temperature (31–36 ^°C) and X₂ = time (48–72 h)] in five levels (2 factorials,2 axial, I central) was used. Spores from Rhizopus stolonifer were suspended in distilled water (1 ×10⁶ spores/mL) and used as starter. According to regression models, minimum and maximum levels of the response variables were 1.24–2.66 mg phytic acid/g ofsample DM, 77.6–83.5% in vitro protein digestibility and2.18–4.63 g available lysine/16 g N. The superposition ofcontour plots of each one of the response variables allowedresearchers to find, graphically, the best conditions for the SSF process: 35.8 ^°C for 42.7 h.     

The nutritional quality of potato protein from intraspecific hybrids

The nutritional value of potato hybrids with Groups Andigena, Phureja, and Tuberosum parentage was measured by protein efficiency ratio (PER). Three diets at 6.0%, 7.75%, and 9.0% crude protein in potato flakes were fed to rats; 18 genotypes were analyzed and the hybrids had higher PER values than Group Tuberosum varieties, but increased tuber protein did not influence the PER values. The overall mean PER was 2.3, and 12 of the potato-flake diets were not different from the casein controls. Fortification with isoleucine did not improve the nutritional quality of the potato flakes. One diet was improved with the addition of both isoleucine and methionine. The influence of sulfur-containing amino acids in potato protein quality among these hybrids is not clear. It is suggested there may be two types of hybrids, one with dependence on these amino acids and a second type with a different protein factor(s) affecting the nutritional quality of the protein. Protein from these potato hybrids, as measured by PER, is among the highest in biological quality when compared with other proteins in plant foods.     

木薯块根不同发育期β-胡萝卜素和蛋白质积累变化及其有色体蛋白质组学研究

木薯是世界重要的粮食作物,在我国发展潜力巨大。蛋白质和类胡萝卜素是重要的营养品质特性,但木薯蛋白质含量低,提高木薯块根类胡萝卜素和蛋白质含量,提高其营养成分,已成为木薯选育种的重要目标。本研究以蛋黄木薯（‘SC9'）、紫叶黄心木薯（‘BGM019'）和白心面包木薯（‘SC101'）3个木薯品种为试验材料,开展黄心和白心木薯块根营养品质特性的研究,分析其不同发育期类胡萝卜素和蛋白质含量的变化,同时利用双向电泳和质谱法开展木薯块根有色体亚细胞结构蛋白质组的研究,揭示其蛋白质含量提高与类胡萝卜素积累的关联性。结果表明：3个木薯品种块根β-胡萝卜素含量在块根形成期、膨大期和成熟期差异显著（P<0.05）,‘BGM019'和‘SC9'蛋白质含量在同一生长发育时期差异不显著（P>0.05）,但显著高于‘SC101'（P<0.05）。随着木薯块根发育成熟,其类胡萝卜素和蛋白质含量均呈上升趋势,且二者表现为正相关。以膨大期为对照,在‘SC9'成熟期块根有色体中检测到36个差异表达蛋白质,其中26个上调表达,10个下调表达;‘BGM019'中检测到49个差异表达蛋白质,其中28个上调表达,21个下调表达;‘SC101'检测到38个差异蛋白质,其中20个上调表达,18个下调表达。通过对上述差异蛋白质的功能分析,发现它们均参与抗氧化、碳代谢和能量代谢、信号转导等多个代谢过程,说明木薯块根类胡萝卜素积累是由多个代谢途径协同作用的结果。对比分析3个木薯品种块根有色体亚细胞结构的差异蛋白质,发现20个差异表达蛋白质在其中2个品种或3个品种间出现相同的表达趋势。它们主要涉及到碳代谢及能量代谢、抗氧化、细胞骨架蛋白、无机离子运输及代谢、分子伴侣和蛋白质合成等代谢途径,其中与抗氧化相关的蛋白质占20%。构建蛋白质生物调控网络揭示块根有色体蛋白质与β-胡萝卜素积累的关联性,为培育优质高营养的木薯新品种提供新思路。     

The nutritional quality of Lupinseed

Mature seeds of four Lupinus species,L. albus, L. angustifolius, L. luteus andL. mutabilis, have been analysed comprehensively to evaluate their potential for nutrition. Particular interest attaches to the comparison betweenlupinus species and soyabeans. All species are rich in high-quality protein, as judged from amino-acid profiles,In vitro studies indicate high levels of digestibility and imply the presence of few interfering factors. In contrast to many other legumes, lupinseeds are free of both protease inhibitors and haemagglutinins. Only one factor, a C-glycosyl poly-hydroxy flavone, which could conceivably interfere with protein absorption, has been identified. Lupinseed could possibly be developed as an oilseed crop, though oil contents are currently somewhat lower than those of soyabeans. The composition of lupinseed oil is similar to that of soyabean oil, both being limited in quality by the presence of linolenic acid. The bright yellow colour of the partially refined oil is due to the presence of the two carotenoids, β-carotene and zeaxanthin. Lupinseed is well-known to contain toxic alkaloids of the quinolizidine group. However, intensive breeding programmes involving all four named species have been in progress for many years. At least in the cases of the first three species, cultivars have been developed that are virtually alkaloid-free. Alkaloid profiles are of interest in being decisive chemotaxonomic indicators of species. The pyrimidine bases responsible for inducing favism through the consumption ofVicia faba are absent from lupinseed. Like soyabeans, lupinseed invariably contains a range of chemically complex saponins. Concentrations in the seed are of a similar order, but it is doubtful whether these should be considered significant anti-nutritional factors for Man. Lupinseeds contain a range of oligosaccharides—raffinose, stachyose and verbascose —which correspond with the flatus factors present in soyabeans and many other legumes. Levels, however, are no higher than those found in soyabeans.     

Protein Nutritional Quality of Infant Cereals during Processing

The most common food for weaning at the age of 4–6 months is cereal since is that it is a good source of high quality protein. However, processing may affect this quality. The aim of the present study was ascertain the changes that take place during four processing stages of infant cereals (in the raw materials, after roasting, after enzymatic treatment and drum drying, and in the commercial product), the following protein nutritional parameters: crude and true protein (CP and TP, respectively), in vitro protein digestibility (IVPD), free amino acids (FAA), calculated protein efficiency ratio (C-PER) and total amino acids profile. Of the infant cereals studied two contained gluten (‘Multicereal’ and ‘Wheat’) and two were gluten-free (‘Growth’ and ‘Rice and carrot’). All the parameters studied were affected by the different processing stages, but none showed a clear trend. The CP and TP content decreased after heat treatment (roasting) with a consequent increase in FAA content due to protein hydrolysis and the release of amino acids. IVPD remained stable during the processing stages in all the infant cereals, except in ‘Wheat’, while C-PER increased significantly. Infant cereals containing gluten showed higher CP and TP contents, and also higher IVPD than gluten free cereals, in which a digestibility value higher than 75% was reached. The overall content of essential amino acids, including sulphur amino acids, was acceptable (equal to or higher than FAO/WHO recommendations), although lysine (Lys) was the limiting amino acid in all the infant cereals.     

Evaluation of Physicochemical and Glycaemic Properties of Commercial Plant-Based Milk Substitutes

The market for plant-based dairy-type products is growing as consumers replace bovine milk in their diet, for medical reasons or as a lifestyle choice. A screening of 17 different commercial plant-based milk substitutes based on different cereals, nuts and legumes was performed, including the evaluation of physicochemical and glycaemic properties. Half of the analysed samples had low or no protein contents (<0.5 %). Only samples based on soya showed considerable high protein contents, matching the value of cow’s milk (3.7 %). An in-vitro method was used to predict the glycaemic index. In general, the glycaemic index values ranged from 47 for bovine milk to 64 (almond-based) and up to 100 for rice-based samples. Most of the plant-based milk substitutes were highly unstable with separation rates up to 54.39 %/h. This study demonstrated that nutritional and physicochemical properties of plant-based milk substitutes are strongly dependent on the plant source, processing and fortification. Most products showed low nutritional qualities. Therefore, consumer awareness is important when plant-based milk substitutes are used as an alternative to cow’s milk in the diet.     

Chemical and Functional Characterization of Kañiwa (C<Emphasis Type="Italic">henopodium pallidicaule</Emphasis>) Grain,Extrudate and Bran

Cereals provide a good source of dietary fibre and other important compounds with nutritional potential, such as phenolic compounds, antioxidants, minerals and vitamins. Although native Andean cereals are known to have high nutritional value, their minor components have not been studied thoroughly. In this study, two varieties of a native Andean crop, kañiwa (Chenopodium pallidicaule), were investigated as sources of dietary fibre and specific antioxidant compounds. Two products, an extrudate and bran, were also prepared and their functional properties and bioactive compounds were determined. Both varieties were rich in total dietary fibre and lignin, and the phenolic components analyzed had high antioxidant activity. The extrudates had good functional properties, such as degree of gelatinization, sectional expansion index and water solubility index; the bran was high in bioactive compounds, such as total phenolics. In conclusion, kañiwa may offer an alternative to traditional cereals as a health-promoting food ingredient.     

The nutritional value of high-lysine barley genotypes

The protein quality of some improved high-lysine barley genotypes was measured chemically — including amino acid analyses and sequential protein extraction — and biologically in N-balance experiments with growing rats. The increased content of lysine, mainly due to an enhancement of the glutelin protein fraction, and other essential amino acids improved the nutritional quality as the biological value of the protein was significantly higher in the high-lysine material compared to normal. This improvement is undoubtedly of importance to meet the essential amino acid requirement of man as well as monogastric animals.     

Amino acid composition and biological evaluation of the protein quality of high lysine barley genotypes

The protein quality of high lysine barley genotypes Notch₁ Notch₂,Riso-1508 and Hiproly grown in Indian soil was evaluated by determining amino acid composition and also by rat growth and nitrogen balance studies. Protein and fat contents were found to be highest in Riso-1508. Lysine concentration (5.26 g/16g N) of Riso-1508 was also highest compared to the other high lysine genotypes. Rat feeding trials indicated that the growth promoting qualities of the proteins of genotype Riso-1508 were significantly (p < 0.05) higher than the low lysine barley genotype. The comparatively low lysine barley diet had more digestible protein than the high lysine barley diet. However, the BV and NPU of the high lysine barley were significantly (p < 0.05) higher. This improvement is of importance in meeting the essential amino acid requirements of man as well as other monogastric animals. The study showed that the high lysine barley harvested in Indian agroclimatic conditions retained high lysine quality.     

Nutritional improvement of lentils,chick pea,rice and wheat by natural fermentation

Effect of natural fermentation process (4 days) on the non-protein nitrogen, crude and true protein, amino acids content and in vitro digestibility of two kinds of legumes (lentils and chick pea) and two kinds of cereals (rice and wheat) was investigated. Non-protein nitrogen increased significantly (p<0.001) in the fermented products. Little increase has occured in the crude protein while no significant change was observed in the fermented true protein samples. It was observed that methionine and cystine which are considered the limiting amino acids in legume seeds were close to those of FAO/WHO patterns. Also, lysine content (the first limiting amino acid in cereals was higher in fermented rice than that of FAO/WHO pattern. Moreover, fermentation process improved significantly, the in vitro digestibility of both legume and cereal products.     

Shurchip: A new scab resistant processing potato variety

Shurchip is a slightly russeted, round to oblong chipping variety of medium maturity. It is resistaant to common scab (Streptomyces scabies) and tolerant to Fusarium (F. solani var. eumartii) and Verticillium (microsclerotial type) wilts. The vines are susceptible and the tubers are highly susceptible to late blight. In Nebraska, Shurchip is high yielding, moderately high in specific gravity, lower in reducing sugars and of good to excellent chipping quality when compared with the standard varieties Haig, Kennebec and Platte. The yield and specific gravity obtained with Shurchip in the 12 states in the North Central Regional Trials and in Texas and Alabama were equal to or greater than those obtained with the standard chipping varieties in the trials.