Absorption and metabolism of permethrin and cypermethrin in the cockroach and the cotton-leafworm larvae

Permethrin was metabolised by attack at the ester bond, in vivo by adult cockroaches, Periplaneta americana and in vitro by esterase preparations. Metabolites retaining the ester linkage could not be detected. In all cases, the (1RS)-trans-isomer (transpermethrin) was more labile than the (1RS)-cis-isomer. Cypermethrin was metabolised at one-fifth the rate for permethrin. In-vitro and in-vivo studies with synergists indicated that cleavage of the ester bond in permethrin can be both oxidative for the (1RS)-cis-isomer and hydrolytic for the (1RS)-trans-isomer. The penetration of permethrin through the cuticle of the cockroach was significantly greater than that of cypermethrin. The penetration and metabolism of permethrin and cypermethrin in sixth-instar larvae of susceptible and resistant strains of the Egyptian cotton-leafworm, Spodoptera littoralis, were studied as possible factors in resistance. No significant differences were found. It is suggested that the major resistance factor to permethrin in S. littoralis is probably non-metabolic.     

The occurrence and distribution of nepoviruses and their associated vector Longidorus and Xiphinema nematodes in Europe and the Mediterranean basin1

Six nepoviruses are transmitted by five Longidorus and three Xiphinema species in Europe. The virus and vector associations are: L. apulus and L. fasciatus with artichoke Italian latent nepovirus, L. attenuatus and L. elongatus with tomato black ring nepovirus, L. elongatus and L. macrosoma with raspberry ringspot nepovirus, X. diversicaudatum with arabis mosaic and strawberry latent ringspot nepoviruses and X. index and X. italiae with grapevine fanleaf nepovirus. The distributions of the viruses and their vectors in Europe and the Mediterranean basin are described. The following points are commented: presence of non-indigenous nematode-transmitted nepoviruses in Europe; occurrence of vector nematodes in European countries in the absence of their associated nepoviruses; the possible vectors of serologically distinct strains of grapevine fanleaf nepovirus.     

Persistence and mobility of chlorsulfuron and metsulfuron under different soil and climatic conditions

The persistence and mobility of chlorsulfuron and metsulfuron were studied in Italy at four field locations. Chlorsulfuron was applied pre-emer-gence to wheat at 15 and 30 g a.i. ha^?1 in the autumn of 1986 and metsulfuron early post-emergence at 8 g a.i. ha^?1 in the spring of 1987. Soil samples were taken periodically at each location for 1 year. Trials were conducted until 1989 at three locations. After the wheat harvest in 1989, chlorsulfuron and metsulfuron residues in the soil were measured by bioassay in plots that had been treated annually for 3 years and also in plots that had received single treatments. Chlorsulfuron at both application rates dissipated to levels below 0.3 g a.i. ha^?1 over 12 months at three locations while, at the fourth, which received only 250 mm rain during the study, significant levels of residues were still present after 15 months. The degradation of chlorsulfuron applied at 30 g a.i. ha^?1 followed first-order kinetics, with half-lives of 149, 70, 59 and 51 days at the four locations. Chlorsulfuron mobility was high at three locations while, in the silty clay soil of the fourth, the herbicide was confined to the upper 30 cm, despite the high rainfall. Metsulfuron applied in spring was detected only in the first soil sample collection. It was present in all sampled layers at one location but, in the others, was confined to the surface layer. There was no evidence of herbicide accumulation in the soil with repeated applications. Persistance et mobilité du chlorsulfuron et du met-sulfuron dans différents sols et sous différentes conditions climatiques La persistance et la mobilité du chorsulfuron et du metsulfuron au champ ont étéétudiées en Italie sur quatre sites. Le chlorsulfuron était appliqué en pré-levée sur le blé aux doses de matière active (m.a.) 15 et 30 g ha^?1à l'automne 1986 et le metsulfuron en post-levée précoce à la dose 8 g m.a. ha^?1 au printemps 1987. Des échantillons de sol étaient prélevés périodiquement sur chaque site pendant 1 an. Les essais ont été conduits jusqu'en 1989 sur trois des sites. En 1989, après la récolte du blé. les résidus de chlorsulfuron et de metsulfuron dans le sol ont été mesurés par des essais biologiques dans des parcelles qui avaient été traitées chaque année pendant 3 ans, ainsi que dans des parcelles qui n'avaient reçu qu'un seul traitement. Le chlorsulfuron aux deux doses disparaissait jusqu'à des niveaux inférieurs à 0.3 g m.a. ha^?1 en 12 mois sur trois des sites, alors que sur le quatrième, qui n'a reçu que 250 mm de précipitations pendant l'étude, des résidus étaient présents en quantité significative après 15 mois. La dégradation du chlorsulfuron appliquéà la dose 30 g m.a. ha^?1 suivait une cinétique du premier ordre, avec des demi-vies 149, 70, 59 et 51 j sur les quatre sites. La mobilité du chlorsulfuron était élevée sur trois des sites alors que sur le quatrième oú le sol était une argile limoneuse, l'herbicide était confiné aux 30 cm superficiels en dépit de précipitations élevées. Le metsulfuron appliqué au printemps n'était détecté que dans le premier prélèvement. Sur un des sites, il était présent dans toutes les couches, mais était confinéà la couche superficielle sur les autres sites. Après des applications répétées, aucune accumulation d'herbicide n'était observée dans le sol. Persistenz und Mobilität von Chlorsulfuron und Metsulfuron in verschiedenen Böden und bei unterschiedlicher Witterung Die Persistenz und Mobilität von Chlorsulfuron und Metsulfuron wurden in Italien an 4 Standorten unter Freilandbedingungen untersucht. Chlorsulfuron wurde im Herbst 1986 bei Weizen im Vorauflauf mit 15 und 30 g AS ha^?1 und Metsulfuron im Frühjahr 1987 im frühen Nachauflauf mit 8 g AS ha^?1 angewandt. Von jeder Versuchsfläche wurden über einen Zeitraum von 1 Jahr periodisch Bodenproben entnommen. Die Versuche wurden an 3 Standorten bis 1989 durchgeführt. Nach der Weizenernte 1989 wurden mit Biotests die Rückstände von Chlorsulfuron und Metsulfuron in den Böden mit jährlicher (über 3 Jahre) sowie mit einmaliger Behandlung bestimmt. Die Chlorsulfuron-Rückstände nahmen an 3 Standorten bei beiden Aufwandmengen nach 12 Monaten auf 0,3 g AS ha^?1 ab. Am 4. Standort, wo während der Untersuchung nur 250 mm Niederschlag gefallen waren, wurden nach 15 Monaten noch signifikante Rückstände gefunden. Der Abbau von Chlorsulfuron folgte an allen Standorten bei einer Aufwandmenge von 30 g AS ha^?1 einer Kinetik erster Ordnung mit Halbwertszeiten von 149, 70, 59 und 51 Tagen. Die Mobilität von Chlorsulfuron war an 3 Standorten hoch, während es in dem schluffigen Tonboden des 4. Standortes trotz hohen Niederschlags in den oberen 30 cm verblieb. Das im Frühjahr ausgebrachte Metsulfuron wurde nur in der 1. Bodenprobenserie gefunden. An einem Standort lagen in allen beprobten Bodenschichten Rückstände vor, doch sonst waren sie auf die oberste Bodenschicht beschränkt. Bei wiederholter Anwendung konnte keine Herbizidakkumulation im Boden festgestellt werden.     

Incidence and diversity of the fungal genera Aspergillus and Penicillium in Portuguese almonds and chestnuts

Almonds (Prunus dulcis (Miller) D.A. Webb) and European (sweet) chestnuts (Castanea sativa Miller) are of great economic and social impact in Mediterranean countries, and in some areas they constitute the main income of rural populations. Despite all efforts to control fungal contamination, toxigenic fungi are ubiquitous in nature and occur regularly in worldwide food supplies, and these nuts are no exception. This work aimed to provide knowledge on the general mycobiota of Portuguese almonds and chestnuts, and its evolution from field to the end of storage. For this matter, 45 field chestnut samples and 36 almond samples (30 field samples and six storage samples) were collected in Trás-os-Montes, Portugal. All fungi belonging to genus Aspergillus were isolated and identified to the section level. Fungi representative of other genera were identified to the genus level. In the field, chestnuts were mainly contaminated with the genera Fusarium, Cladosporium, Alternaria and Penicillium, and the genus Aspergillus was only rarely found, whereas almonds were more contaminated with Aspergillus. In almonds, Aspergillus incidence increased significantly from field to the end of storage, but diversity decreased, with potentially toxigenic isolates belonging to sections Flavi and Nigri becoming more significant and widespread throughout storage. These fungi were determined to be moderately associated, which can be indicative of mycotoxin co-contamination problems if adequate storage conditions are not secured.     

Surfactant and salt affect glyphosate retention and absorption

The influence of nonylphenoxy surfactants and glyphosate salt formulation on spray retention, phytotoxicity and [¹⁴C]glyphosate uptake was investigated in wheat (Triticum aestivum L). and Kochia scoparia L. The amount of spray retained, and uptake of [¹⁴C]glyphosate increased with increasing hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB) value of surfactants. The volume of spray delivered to the plant treatment area and retained by wheat and K. scoparia plants increased with increasing surfactant HLB values, but this only partly accounted for the higher spray retention. Spray retention by leaves of plants was not affected by calcium chloride, either alone or with ammonium sulphate in the glyphosate spray solution. [¹⁴C]Glyphosate absorption by wheat and K. scoparia was reduced by calcium chloride alone, but not in mixtures with ammonium sulphate, regardless of surfactant. Phytotoxicity and uptake of glyphosate salt formulations for wheat was: isopropylamine > ammonium > sodium > calcium; these results indicate that the surfactant selected is important to maintain glyphosate efficacy and that sodium and calcium cations antagonize glyphosate by forming salts that are absorbed less than commercial isopropylamine formulations.     

Influence of subacute and subchronic treatment of abcisic acid and gibberellic acid on serum marker enzymes and erythrocyte and tissue antioxidant defense systems and lipid peroxidation in rats

This study describes the subacute and subchronic effects of two plant growth regulators (PGRs) [abcisic acid (ABA) and gibberellic acid (GA₃)] on serum marker enzymes [aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), creatine phosphokinase (CPK) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), γ-glutamil transpeptidase (GGT)], antioxidant defense systems [reduced glutathione (GSH), glutathione reductase (GR), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione-S-transferase (GST) and catalase (CAT)] and lipid peroxidation level (Malondialdehyde = MDA) in various tissues of rats. Rats (Sprague-Dawley albino) were exposed to 75 ppm (parts per million) of ABA and GA₃. Seventy-five parts per million of PGRs as drinking water was administered orally ad libitum for 25 and 50 days continuously. The PGRs treatments caused different effect on the serum marker enzymes, antioxidant defense systems and the content of MDA in comparison to those of control rats. Results show that ABA caused a significant decrease in serum LDH and CPK activity with both periods. Also, GA₃ significantly decreased serum AST, CPK, and LDH activity with subacute and decreased serum ALT, CPK, LDH, and GGT treated with subchronic periods. The lipid peroxidation end product MDA significantly increased in the erythrocyte, liver, brain, and muscle of rats treated with both the period of GA₃ without significantly change in the erythrocyte and muscle of rats treated with the subacute period of ABA. The GSH levels were significantly depleted in the erythrocyte and brain of rats treated with both the period of GA₃ without any change in the erythrocyte, liver, brain, and muscle of rats treated with both the period of ABA. Also GSH levels in the muscle significantly depleted with the subchronic period of GA₃. Antioxidant enzyme activities such as SOD significantly decreased in the erythrocyte, liver and brain tissues but increased in the muscle tissue of rats treated with both the periods of GA₃. Meanwhile, SOD significantly decreased in liver and brain, and increased in muscle of rats treated with both the period of ABA. While CAT significantly decreased in the all tissues of rats treated with both the period of GA₃, decreased in the liver and muscle of rats treated with both the periods of ABA too. On the other hand, the ancillary enzyme GPx and GR activity in the erythrocytes, liver, brain and muscle were either significantly depleted or not changed with two periods of PGRs. The drug metabolizing enzyme GST activity significantly decreased in the brain of rats treated with subacute period of PGRs but increased in the erythrocytes of rats treated with subacute period of GA₃. As a conclusion, ABA and GA₃ had significantly increased the activity of hepatic damage enzymes. Also the rats resisted to oxidative stress via antioxidant mechanism. However, the antioxidant mechanism could not prevent the increases in lipid peroxidation in rat’s tissues. These data, along with changes, suggest that PGRs produced substantial systemic organ toxicity in the erythrocyte, liver, brain, and muscle during the period of a 25-day subacute and 50-day subchronic exposure.     

Identification and determination of mecarbam and its major degradation products in water and crops

Methods have been developed for the analysis by gas-liquid chromatography and thin-layer chromatography of mecarbam and a number of its degradation products which result from oxidation and/or partial hydrolysis. In acid solution, mecarbam was found to be relatively stable but it decomposed more readily under alkaline conditions to give O, O-diethylhydrogen phosphorodithioate by fission of thesulphur-carbon bond. At pH 9.2, the half-life at room temperature was about 44 h. For residue analysis, a clean-up procedure with Florisil was found to be preferable to one which employed alumina, as the latter caused cleavage of the ethoxycarbonyl group under certain conditions. Field trials with olives, oranges and pears showed that the parent pesticide, mecarbam, was the only significant detectable residue at any stage from treatment to harvesting, and that it tended to concentrate in the oil-containing portion of the crop. Low levels of O, O-diethyl S-methylcarbamoylmethyl phosphorodithioate were also detected in residues from lucerne and from bean plants, and it was shown that this samemetabolite could be formed photolytically on filter paper or (morerapidly) on dock leaves. S-(N-Ethoxycarbonyl-N-methylcarbamoylmethyl) O, O-diethyl phosphorothioate was detected only in bean plants and then, at a level of less than 0.1 mg kg^?1.     

Agricultural and Horticultural Fungicides - Past,Present and Future

Abstract

Maize is produced primarily in temperate and warm-temperate zones of the world, but its production is increasing in many tropical regions. Some diseases are common to both of these environmental zones even though their importance may vary greatly. Other diseases are confined to a single zone. The important factors influencing the geographical distribution of maize diseases and some of their vectors are temperature, moisture, cultural practices, and the type and diversity of maize germplasm used. Within tropical zones maize diseases may be segregated into those in humid environments and those favoured by drier, upland climatic conditions. Elevation within the tropics, as this influences temperature, is a factor in distribution of maize diseases.

Late wilt, banded leaf and sheath blight, and Rhizoctonia, Botryodiplodia and grey ear rots occur only in the tropical zone and the warm, temperate areas, while the Sclerospora-incited downy mildew diseases, southern rust, Pythium and bacterial stalk rots, Curvularia leaf spot, and ear rot caused by Diplodia macrospora are much more prevalent there, occurring only occasionally beyond latitudes 34°N and 34°S. Conversely, bacterial wilt, eye spot, and yellow leaf blight have been found to occur only in the temperate zones. Ergot has been found only in a few locations at high elevation (250–270 m) in Central Mexico. Northern leaf blight, common rust, and stalk and ear rots caused by Diplodia maydis and Gibberella zeae prevail in the temperate zones and at high elevations and in winter seasons within tropical latitudes.     

Multiplication of Xanthomonas campestris pvs secalis and translucens in host and non-host plants (rye and barley) and development of water soaking1

Multiplication of the rye-specific and barley-specific pathovars secalis and translucens, respectively, of Xanthomonas campestris (earlier named Xanthomonas translucens f. sp. cerealis) was determined in two rye and two barley cultivars. Fresh bacterial cultures were suspended in boiled tap water, adjusted to about 3 × 10⁷ cfu ml^?1 and infiltrated into the mesophyll of young leaves. In the compatible combinations, a generation time of 1.7–2.1 h was determined. Significantly higher multiplication rates than in incompatible combinations were not observed before 3 or 4 days after inoculation. At this time, the first small water-soaked areas appeared. Bacteria multiplied up to the seventh day after inoculation, reaching a maximum of at least 10⁹ cells per cm², the same time at which the water-soaked areas had reached their maximum size. Thus, the rate of bacterial multiplication paralleled with the development of the water-soaked areas. In the incompatible combinations, nearly the same generation times were detected during the exponential growth phase. However, water-soaked areas did not appear, and the final bacterial concentration ranged from 1:1000 to 1:100 of that determined in compatible combinations. A distinct early lag phase, characterized by a decrease of the bacterial population down to 1:100 of the starting concentration, was detected in all cases.     

日光温室钾镁配施对土壤固相和液相钾、钙、镁分配及比例的影响

针对西北地区日光温室作物出现的缺镁问题,通过施用不同水平的硫酸镁肥及减少钾肥施用处理,探究钾、钙、镁离子在土壤固相和液相的分布及比例。得出以下结论:土壤液相镁浓度随着镁肥施用量的增加而显著增加,施用45 kg·hm~(-2)MgSO_4(400 kg·hm~(-2)K_2O)处理和施用90 kg·hm~(-2)MgSO_4(400 kg·hm~(-2)K_2O)处理镁浓度相比不施用MgSO_4处理分别增加26.64%、74.78%;相比不施用MgSO_4处理,施用镁肥后土壤液相Mg~(2+)占K~+、Ca~(2+)、Mg~(2+)总量的比例显著增加,施用45 kg·hm~(-2)MgSO_4(400 kg·hm~(-2)K_2O)处理、施用90 kg·hm~(-2)MgSO_4(400 kg·hm~(-2)K_2O)处理和施用90 kg·hm~(-2)MgSO_4(200 kg·hm~(-2)K_2O)处理分别增加32.03%、31.62%、32.84%;施用镁肥促进钾由固相向液相转移;相比不施用MgSO_4处理,施用45、90 kg·hm~(-2)MgSO_4处理土壤固相交换性钾含量分别降低15.78%、27.74%,差异达到显著水平;交换性钾饱和度分别降低13.39%、27.21%;液相钾浓度显著增加,分别增加18.84%、73.91%;K+占K+、Ca~(2+)、Mg~(2+)总量的比例显著增加,增幅分别为23.91%、31.21%;土壤固相K+/Mg~(2+)比例分别降低14.52%、26.61%,;土壤液相Ca~(2+)/Mg~(2+)比例显著降低,降幅分别为31.51%、32.29%;施用MgSO_4肥量相同,钾肥施用量减半,土壤液相钾浓度降低69.88%,K+/Mg~(2+)比例降低20.88%;施用镁肥对番茄具有一定的增产作用,并能促进作物对镁的吸收。     

Pathogenicity and toxicity of Fusarium tucumaniae and Fusarium crassistipitatum to soybean and Arabidopsis thaliana

Sudden death syndrome (SDS) of soybean is a fungal disease caused by at least four distinct Fusarium species: F. tucumaniae, F. virguliforme, F. brasiliense, and F. crassistipitatum. All four species are present in Argentina. These fungi are soilborne pathogens that only colonize roots and cause root necrosis. However, damage also reaches the aboveground part of the plant, and foliar chlorosis and necrosis, followed by premature defoliation, can be observed. Although the pathogenicity and phytotoxicity of F. virguliforme has been well characterized, knowledge regarding disease development by other fungal species is scarce. In this study, two plant species, soybean (Glycine max) and Arabidopsis thaliana, and isolates from two fungal species, F. tucumaniae and F. crassistipitatum, were used to comparatively analyse the fungal pathogenicity and the phytotoxicity of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and cell-free culture filtrates. Fungal inoculation had a significant effect on plant growth, regardless of the plant species. In addition, infected soybean plants showed disease incidence and foliar and root symptoms. Inhibition of A. thaliana growth was not due to VOCs emitted by fungi. Instead, both pathogens were shown to produce toxins that caused typical SDS foliar symptoms in soybean and root length reduction in A. thaliana. As far as we know, this is the first report that demonstrates that F. tucumaniae and F. crassistipitatum affect A. thaliana growth and emit VOCs, and that F. crassistipitatum produces toxins.     

Of mushrooms and chocolate trees: aetiology and phylogeny of witches' broom and frosty pod diseases of cacao

The troubled history of the two major diseases of the chocolate tree (Theobroma cacao) in South America, witches' broom and frosty pod, is reviewed, concentrating on critical aspects of the aetiology as well as the phylogeny of the causal agents. Both diseases are caused by sister species within the genus Moniliophthora, belonging to the Marasmiaceae family of mushrooms. The witches' broom pathogen, Moniliophthora perniciosa, evolved on the Amazonian side of the Andes and induces brooms not only in cacao and its relatives in the genera Theobroma and Herrania (Malvaceae), but also in species in the plant families Bignoniaceae, Malpighiaceae and Solanaceae, on which the mushrooms (basidiomata) are produced. Moniliophthora roreri, the type species of the genus, evolved as a pod pathogen on endemic Theobroma species on the western side of the northern Andean Cordillera. Because Moniliophthora was described originally as the asexual form of an unknown basidiomycete, the generic diagnosis is amended here to accommodate species with agaricoid basidiomata. In addition, the new variety M. roreri var. gileri is designated for the morphotype occurring on Theobroma gileri, in northwest Ecuador. Cytology studies indicate that the supposed conidia of M. roreri are, in fact, sexual spores (meiospores) and it is posited that the fruiting structure represents a much‐modified mushroom. Finally, based on preliminary data from pathogenicity testing, it is hypothesized that the true causal agent of both diseases is an as yet unidentified infectious agent vectored into the host by the fungus.     

Effect of nitrogen and phosphorus on growth and interference between Bromus tectorum and Taeniatherum asperum

The effects of nitrogen and phosphorus supply on growth and interference between Bromus tectorum and Taeniatherum asperum were studied in greenhouse sand culture, using a modified replacement series experiment. Three levels of N and P were applied in all possible combinations. Height, number of leaves and biomass production were reduced in both species in response to nutrient reduction. B. tectorum had higher dry matter production than T. asperum at high nitrogen or phosphorus concentrations' or when both nutrients were present. When either nutrient was lacking, yield of both species was similarly reduced. Nitrogen deficiency was more influential on yield reduction than phosphorus in both species. In mixtures, B. tectorum was highly competitive at high concentrations of N and P. At lower levels of N and P supply, the species performed equally. Early patterns of resource allocation and high growth rates in B. tectorum enable that species to outperform T. asperum at high nutrient concentration. These advantages were reduced by nutrient deficiency, which led to competitive equality between the species. Effet de l'azote et du phosphore sur la croissance et l'interaction entre Bromus tectorum et Taeniatherum asperum Les effets de la fourniture en azote et en phosphore sur la croissance et l'interaction entre Bromus tectorum et Taeniatherum asperum ont étéétudiés en cultures de serre sur sable, à l'aide d'un dispositif en séries de remplacement modifié. Trois niveaux de N et P étaient appliqués dans toutes les combinaisons possibles. Chez les deux espèces, la hauteur, le nombres de feuilles et la production de biomasse étaient réduits en réponse à une diminution des nutriments. A haute concentration d'azote ou de phosphore, ou quand les deux nutriments étaient présents, B. tectorum produisait davantage de matière sèche que T. asperum. Quand l'un des nutriments était absent, le rendement des deux espèces était réduit de manière similaire, l'effet d'une déficience en azote étant le plus marqué. En cultures mélangées, B. tectorumétait hautement compétitif a fortes concentrations de N et P. A plus basses concentrations, les deux espèces présentaient les mêmes performances. L'allocation de ressources aux stades précoces et la vitesse de croissance élevée de B. tectorum lui permettaient de supplanter T. asperum lorsque la fourniture en nutriments était importante. Cet advantage était réduit lorsque la fourniture en nutriments était plus faible, ce qui conduisait à une égalité des pouvoirs compétitifs. Die Wirkung von Stickstoff und Phosphor auf das Wachstum und die Konkurenz zwischen Bromus tectorum und Taeniatherum asperum In einem substitutiven Versuchsansatz auf Sandboden im Gewächshaus wurde die Wirkung der Stickstoff- und Phosphorversorgung (in 3 Düngungsstufen) auf Wachstum und Konkurrenz von Bromus tectorum und Taeniatherum asperum untersucht. Pflanzenhöhe, Blattzahl und Biomasseproduktion waren bei beiden Arten entsprechend der abnehmenden Düngung reduziert. Bei hohem Stickstoff- oder Phosphorniveau oder bei Gegenwart beider Nährstoffe hatte B. tectorum eine stärkere Trockenmassebildung als T. asperum. Fehlten beide Nährstoffe, so war bei beiden Arten das Wachstum ähnlich herabgesetzt. Stickstoffmangel wirkte sich bei beiden Arten stärker aus als Phosphormangel. In Mischbeständen war B. tectorum bei hohen N- und P-Konzentrationen sehr konkurrenzkräftig. Bei niedriger Nährstoffversorgung verhielten sich die Arten gleich. Aufgrund frühzeitiger Nährstoffaneignung und hoher Wachstumsraten übertrifft B. tectorum bei hoher Nährstoffversorgung die anderere Art. Bei Nährstoffmangel gibt es diesen Vorteil nicht, so daß beide Arten gleich konkurrenzstark sind.     

Prevalence and diversity of plant parasitic nematodes in Northern Ireland grassland and cereals,and the influence of soils and rainfall

The prevalence and diversity of plant parasitic nematodes in Northern Ireland cereal and grassland was determined from 191 agricultural fields. A total of 18 nematode genera were detected, including economically important pests, Meloidogyne spp., Heterodera spp. and Pratylenchus spp., each of which were above economic damage thresholds in a significant proportion of the sites (92.4%, 70% and 28.6%, respectively). The detection of the root knot nematode, Meloidogyne minor (6% prevalence), was significant given its recent emergence across the turf grass sector and the prospect of M. minor becoming a common agricultural pest. Analyses of nematode prevalence and abundance highlighted significant associations with grass and cereals, soil types, soil grade (proxy for soil quality) and rainfall levels. Specifically, nematode populations varied between the two major soils (brown earths and gleys), while significant trends for increased nematode diversity and greater prevalence of both Meloidogyne and Pratylenchus with increasing rainfall were also observed. Multivariate analyses were performed to determine interactive effects and the relative importance of the factors affecting nematode populations. Notably, rainfall, in combination with either crop type or soil grade, had a significant effect on nematode abundance and diversity. The findings suggest significant changes in nematode populations have occurred over the last several decades and the possibility that these are linked to changing climate and cropping practices are discussed, as well as future concerns for plant parasitic nematode management.     

The synthesis and fungicidal activity of derivatives of o- and p-Cyclohexylphenyl phosphorodichloridates and dichloridophosphorothioates

The synthesis of o- and p-cyclohexyphenyl phosphorodichloridates and dichloridophosphorothioates and their conversion into the corresponding dimethyl phosphates, phosphorodihydrazides, and phosphorodihydrazones, is discussed. o- and p-Cyclohexylphenyl N-phenylphosphoramidic chlorides were converted to the hydrazide and the O-methyl ester. The phosphorodichloridates were converted to the dihydrogen phosphates, but the dichloridophosphorothioates could not be hydrolysed in an analogous manner. Structure-activity relationships have been briefly discussed; the most active compound was o-cyclohexylphenyl O-methyl phosphoroisopropylidene hydrazone.     

Growth and development of fall- and spring-planted populations of Conyza canadensis and C. bonariensis

The growth and phenological development of spring- and fall-planted Conyza canadensis and C. bonariensis were studied in Fresno, CA, USA. A glyphosate-resistant (GR) and a glyphosate-susceptible (GS) population of each species were used. Time taken by each plant to reach the rosette, bolting, appearance of first bud, appearance of first open flower, and initial seed set were converted to growing degree days (GDDs). The fall- and spring-planted C. canadensis required similar GDDs to complete their life cycles but the GR type required fewer GDDs than the GS type. In C. bonariensis, the GDDs required to complete its life cycle differed between the fall- and spring-plantings but not between the GR and GS types. The total aboveground biomass of both fall- and spring-planted Conyzas at initial seed set was similar but the spring-planted GS C. canadensis produced more biomass than the GR type, whereas the fall-planted GS C. bonariensis produced more biomass than the GR type. Plant development based on GDD models can have global implications and help in planning for timely applications of post-emergence herbicides.     

Acetochlor sorption and degradation in limestone subsurface and aquifers

BACKGROUND: Acetochlor, introduced on the market in 1994, is used extensively worldwide, but sorption and degradation studies, including subsurface, are scarce, and there appear to be no such studies with aquifer sediment according to the present mini‐review. Sorption, degradation and mineralisation of acetochlor were investigated in heterogeneous limestone down to 43 m below surface (mbs) in four European aquifers (1.7–59 mbs), both aerobic and anaerobic. RESULTS: Sorption revealed K_d values of 3.39–4.96 L kg^?1 in topsoil, < 0.01–2.02 L kg^?1 in heterogeneous limestone, 0.06–0.72 L kg^?1 in aerobic aquifers and 1.03–4.60 L kg^?1 in microaerobic or anaerobic aquifers. The mineralisation half‐lives in the samples from 0.0–0.6 mbs were 0.8–2.1 years and 4.7–95 years in the unsaturated limestone samples from 1–43 mbs. Out of 22 samples from four different European aquifers, acetochlor was mineralised in five samples (half‐lives of 9–19 years), all from the same aquifer and core section (19.25–19.53 mbs). CONCLUSION: Sorption was weak in limestone and aerobic sandy aquifers, and strong in topsoils and in reduced sandy aquifers. Redox conditions controlled the extent of acetochlor sorption in aquifers, as reduced conditions induced increased sorption. Acetochlor was mineralised in deep subsurface, though slowly, and, as mineralisation is the only true removal mechanism in natural attenuation, even slow mineralisation in aquifers with long residence times can have a significant impact. Copyright © 2010 Society of Chemical Industry     

氮肥和密度对胡麻水分、氮素利用率及产量的影响

在大田环境下,设置氮肥(0、75、150 kg·hm~(-2))和密度(4.5、7.5、10.5×10~6粒·hm~(-2))2因素共9个处理(N_0D_1、N_0D_2、N_0D_3、N_1D_1、N_1D_2、N_1D_3、N_2D_1、N_2D_2、N_2D_3)的随机区组试验,分析了不同施氮量和种植密度组合对旱地胡麻土壤含水量、贮水量、籽粒产量及产量构成因子、水分和氮素利用率的影响。结果表明,氮肥、密度各处理土壤含水量变化主要表现在苗期～青果期0～60 cm土层,以N_1D_1处理为优,最高达到15.52%;N_2D_1处理0～200 cm土壤平均含水量为18.25%,其生育季内0～200 cm土壤贮水量亦较最低处理N_1D_3增加4.62%,具有较好的肥水耦合优势。胡麻产量随处理中施氮量和密度增加呈先降后升趋势,随施氮量变幅为66.58～171.64 kg·hm~(-2),随密度变幅为32.42～68.47 kg·hm~(-2)。籽粒产量和水分利用效率对施氮水平呈现明显的正效应,高氮(N_2)较中氮(N_1)和不施氮(N_0)水平产量上升14.97%～16.05%,水分利用效率增加7.14%～21.75%;而增加密度对胡麻产量和水分利用效率并未有显著影响,组合中均为4.5×10~6粒·hm~(-2)处理下最高,分别达到1 802.00 kg·hm~(-2)和7.87 kg·hm~(-2)·mm~(-1)。增施氮肥显著提高了植株氮素吸收量,高氮(N_2)、中氮(N_1)较不施氮(N_0)分别显著增加82.21%和57.55%;平均氮素吸收利用率则均随施氮量和密度上升而降低,高氮(N_2)较中氮(N_1)水平显著降低42%,高密度(D_3)、中密度(D_2)平均氮素利用率分别较低密度(D_1)处理显著降低58.45%和35.19%。在试验处理区间内,高氮配合增密不利于提高氮素吸收利用率, N_1D_1组合氮素利用率最优,为64.3%。氮肥密度互作后,籽粒产量与有效分茎数间(0.688~*)、有效分枝数与单株有效果数间(0.877~*)均显著相关,且分茎数、分枝数受密度影响程度大于施氮量,而千粒重受限于施氮量更甚,不同施氮水平间变幅达到0.04～0.29 g。因此,氮肥密度互作时,增密对水分利用效率及产量无显著影响,适量氮肥施用可促进胡麻生育前、中期水分有效利用和提高氮素利用率,使胡麻产量及水分利用效率显著增加。在本试验及相似农田生态类型环境下,兼顾节本增效和环境安全,施氮量75～150 kg·hm~(-2)、种植密度4.5×10~6粒·hm~(-2)可作为黄土高原干旱半干旱区胡麻高效生产的适宜参考氮肥密度组合。     

Adsorption and bioactivity of di-allate,tri-allate and trifluralin*

Studies were conducled to cstmiate the adsorption parameter k and the bioactivity (in terms of G R₅₀) of di-allate [S-2,3-dichloroallyl N, N-di-isopropyl (thiocar bamate)], iri-allate [S-2,3,3-trichloroallyl N, N -di-isopropyl (thiocar bamate], and [trifiuralin (2,6-dinitro N, N-dlpropyl-4-trifluoromelhylaniline) in a number of Saskatchewan soil. The k values ratiged from 5 for di-allate adsorption m Asquilh loamy sand to 315 for trifluralin adsorption on Melfort loam and were closely related to the soil organic matter content. The relative degree of adsorption was irifluralin > tri-allate >di-allaie. For each herbicide, the G R₅₀ values were positively correlated wich organic matter conienl atid wilh k. It was suggested that these nonionic herbicides may be amenable to a predictive approach for field application rates in different soils. Among herbicides for any one soil, however, there was not the same relationship between G R₅₀andk. since the G R₅₀ was least for trifluralin and there was no significant difference between di-allate and tri-allate.     

Species presence and density of tetranychid and phytoseiid mites in unsprayed and sprayed apple orchards in Northern Israel

Species presence and density of mixed populations of phytophagous tetranychid and predacious phytoseiid mites were studied in sprayed and unsprayed apple orchards in northern Israel during three growing seasons. Two species of phytophagous tetranychids, namely,Tetranychus cinnabarinus Boisduval andT. Urticae Koch, and two species of predatory phytoseiid mites —Typhlodromus athiasae Porath and Swirski andAmblyseius swirskii Athias-Henriot — were found. Predator density was lower than herbivore density in sprayed commercial orchards, but the reverse was true in unsprayed orchards. Contribution from the Agricultural Research Organization. No. 2855-E, 1989 series.